
Class_5_Fl \ b 
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COEXraGKT DEFOSTC 




THE PRESENTATION of this photo-engraving as a frontis- 
piece is meant to be a tribute to the talent of Mr. Chas. 
Reid, of Wishaw, Scotland, whose work in this direction has 
shown the degree to which animal photography may be made both 
artistic and instructive. The sustained merit of the work which 
he had done has pointed the way to gratifying results, and the 
outcome has just recently made it possible to illustrate a book of 
this kind with all the types and qualities shown as they are, 
through the agency of photographs made by him and such artists 
as Schreiber of Philadelphia, Hills of Ohio, and Brown of Scot- 
land. In addition to the clearness of detail in this reproduction 
of some Highland sheep, note the beauty of the mountain stream 
with the old water wheel at the side of it, the naturalness of the 
sheep, the watchful pose of the dog, guardlike in position, with 
the shepherds resting at the foot of the trees and all in the fore- 
ground of the rolling hills suggested beyond. 



Judging Live Stock 



By JOHN A. CRAIG 



Formerly 

Editor Canadian Live Stock Journal 

Professor Animal Husbandry, University of Wisconsin 

Professor Animal Husbandry and Vice Director 

Iowa Agricultural College 

Dean and Director Texas Agricultural and 

Mechanical College 

Director Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station 



TWENTY- SEVENTH EDITION 



Published by 
THE ESTATE OF THE AUTHOR 



GOPYRIGHTED 1901 

BY 



sf 



JOHN A. CRAIG (^V 

■ oT 

SET UP AND ELECTROTYPED, JANUARY 1901 \ 

REPRINTED, SECOND EDITION, MARCH, 1901 

REPRINTED, THIRD EDITION, APRIL, 1901 

REPRINTED, FOURTH EDITION, JANUARY 1902 

REPRINTED. FIFTH EDITION, OCTOBER, 1902 

REPRINTED, SIXTH EDITION, AUGUST, 1904 

REPRINTED, SEVENTH EDITION, FEBRUARY 1905 

REPRINTED, EIGHTH EDITION, FEBRUARY, 1906 

REPRINTED, NINTH EDITION, JANUARY 1907 

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REPRINTED, FOURTEENTH EDITION, DEC, 1909 

REPRINTED, FIFTEENTH EDITION, OCT., 1910 

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REPRINTED, SEVENTEENTH EDITION, AUG., 1911 

REPRINTED, EIGHTEENTH EDITION, DEC, 1911 

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REPRINTED, TWENTY-FIFTH EDITION, MAY, 1916 

REPRINTED TWENTY-SIXTH EDITION, DEC. 1917 

REPRINTED TWENTY-SEVENTH EDITION FEB. 1920 

Printed by 

THE KENYON COMPANY, Inc. 

Des Moines, Iowa 



MAR -I 1920 

g)CU566013 



%nimixi£txxm. 



Beauty is bought by 
judgment of the eye. 

— Shakespeare. 



T N JUDGING LIVE STOCK there are two faculties which 
seem to require special development — observation and 
judgment. 

The eye must see quickly and accurately, so that there 
may be no mistake in the observations which are to form 
the basis for a conclusion. While this is to a considerable 
extent dependent on being informed on what to look for, 
yet no amount of information will 
supply keen powers of observation, 
which in addition, must be kept in 
practice by continuous use. The stu- 
dent should never be dilatory in this, for once allow it to 
be said that he sees a thing which he does not, the founda- 
tion for candid criticism is being built on sand. It is better 
to be "simpler than the infancy of truth" and completely 
candid with one's observations than to be in the least 
deceptive or dilatory in recording them. 

Not only should one be quick to see things as they really 
are but there should be as much dispatch in detecting 
deviations from the correct standard. 
There is much difficulty in this for 
a standard only forms itself clearly 
in one's mind after the results of 
experience, observation and study 
have merged together into a clearly 
denned ideal. To formulate an ideal is absolutely essential 
and in doing this it is imperative to familiarize one's self 
with the good qualities of animal life, correct conformation 
and the highest types, so that the 
least variation from these at once at- 
tracts the attention. When a dis- 
tinct ideal, based on the best types 



What, then, makes a dog 
beautiful? The possession 
o*the excellence of a dog. 
And what makes a horse 
beautiful? The possession 
of the excellence of a horse. 
What, then, makes a man 
beautiful? Is it not the po- 
session of the excellence of 
a vazxil—Epictetus. 



No pessimist ever made 
much in the study of life 
histories of animals. The 
student of such had better 
be an optimist out and out. 
— Samuel Lockwood. 



and their highest qualities has been formed in the mind, 
and this is supported by a discriminating eye, it is but 
another step to render a correct judgment. 



In judging the market classes of stock the demands of 
the market should have a strong influence in the establish- 
ment of standards and in the judg- 
ing of breeding classes the official 
scales of points, when such exist, 
should be relied upon chiefly as a 



But do thou, I say, simply 
and fully, choose the better 
and hold to it. But that 
which is useful is the better. 
•--Antoninus. 



guide, and when these are not officially published an effort 
should be made to become informed regarding the under- 
standing that exists among the breeders. While these stand- 
ards are so wide in scope as to include many minor points, 
yet it will be noticeable that the essential features are given 
the greatest prominence and they are usually based on the 
utility of the animal for its purpose. 
This does not mean that the minor 
features should be slighted, for the 



No detail is too small to 
be studied for truth. 

— Stevenson. 



degree of excellence in domestic animals is now so high and 
the competition so keen that it is most frequently on some 
of these minor details that their rank in the show ring is 
determined. 

In show ring judging, after the inspection is completed, 
a draft or " short leet" is made of the likely winners of 
place from the rest of the competitors. Up to this time 
the judging has been the detection of faults and deviations 
from the standard required, but now the work is more of 
the nature of comparative judging, in which the points of 
the animals considered worthy of 
prizes are compared to determine 
their rank. It greatly aids dispatch 



Reverence the faculty 
which produces opinion.— 
Antoninus. 



and tends to more exactness to make such a draft w T hen 
there are five or more animals in the class. It also materi- 
ally assists the examiner in keeping in mind the qualities 
which he must compare. Carefulness at this point will do 
much towards the formation of a decision, which may be 
afterwards maintained with justice. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I— JUDGING HORSES. 



THE ANATOMY A BASIS OF STUDY. 



The Bones as Levers; Actions of the Muscles; Func- 
tion of the Nervous System; Temperaments. 



JUDGING DRAFT HORSES. 



V 



General Examination. — The Contribution of Skeleton • — 
and Muscle; Propelling Power Resides in Hind Quar- 
— ters; Consideration of Condition; Advantage of 
Weight; Market Value of Weight; Quality with Sub- 
stance Necessary for Durability; Action; Trotting 
Action. 

Structural Examination. — Head; Neck; Shoulder; 
Chest; Arm; Fore Leg; Knees; Fetlocks; Pasterns; 
Feet; Body; Loin; Croup; Hock; Scale of Points for 
Heavy Horses. 

III. JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 21 

General Examination. — Form; Three Classes of Light 
Horses; The Coach or Carriage Horse; Analysis of 
Style; The Trotter or Roadster; The Pacer as a Road- 
ster; The Saddle Horse; Quality; Durability As- 
sociated with Quality; Action, The Walk; Observing 
Straightness of the Walk; Manner of Noting Levelness; 
The High Stepper in Action; The Carriage Horse; 
Straight and Regular Action; The Driver's Sensation 
of Action; The Trotter; The Pacing Gait. 
Structural Examination. — Head; Nostrils; Eyes; Ears; 
Jaw Bones; Neck; Shoulders; Fore Legs; Arms; 
Elbows; Fore Arms; Knees; Cannons; Pasterns; 
Feet; Ribs; Back; Loin; Croup; Thighs; Quarters; 
Hind Legs; Hocks; Hind Cannons; Hind Pasterns; 
Hind Feet; Scale of Points for Light Horses. 

IV. JUDGING HORSES IN THE BREEDING CLASSES 45 

Sex Characteristics; Differences in Disposition; Dif- 
ferences in Form; Variation in Features; Relation of 
Sex Characteristics to Sterility; Relation of Sex 
Characteristics to Prepotency; The Stallion Classes; 
Importance of Correct Conformation; Hereditary Dis- 
eases; The Mare Classes; Colts and Fillies. 

V. ESTIMATING THE AGE OF HORSES BY THEIR TEETH 51 

Appearance of Incisors; Order of Appearance of In- 
cisors; Disappearance of the Tables. 



CONTENTS— CONTINUED. 
VI. EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS 53 

A Blemish Different from Unsoundness; Decayed and 
Worn Teeth; Discharges from the Nostrils; Defective 
Hearing; Sweenied Shoulders; Capped Elbows; Splints; 
Ringbones; Sidebones; Quarter Cracks and Sand 
Cracks; Corns; Thrush and Scratches; Locating Lame- 
ness; Thoroughpin; Curb; Bone Spavin; Bog Spavin; 
Unsound in Wind; Detection of Stable Vices. 

VH. OFFICIAL STANDARDS FOR HORSES 59 

Standard for Trotting and Pacing Horses; Shetland 
Pony Scale of Points. 

CHAPTER II— JUDGING CATTLE. 
Method of Examination 63 

I. JUDGING BEEF CATTLE . . . 63 

Method of Handling; Store Steer; Form of the Feeder; 
Quality; Inferences from Good Handling; Features of 
the Head; Neck; Chest; Ribs; Hips; Judging Fat 
Steers; Handling; Condition; Relation of Parts; Value 
of Cuts; Scale of Points for Beef Steer. 

II. JUDGING BEEE STOCK FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 73 

Judging Beef Bulls; Judging Beef Cows; Judging 
Young Beef Stock. 

III. JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 76 

Dairy Cow's Function; Making of Milk; Function of 
the Blood; Function of the Udder; Nervous System; 
The Dairy Form; Skin; Hair; Bone; Head; Neck; 
Hind Quarters; Hips; Thigh; Escutcheon; Udder; 
Teats; Milk Veins; Scale of Points for Dairy Cow. 

IV. JUDGING DAIRY BULLS 88 

Purity of Breeding; Uniformity of Breeding; Pedigree 
Based on Performance; Qualities Associated with 
Individuality; Judging Calves. 

V. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE - . . 90 

Aberdeen Angus; Devon; Red Polled; Holstein- 
Friesian; Jersey; Guernsey; Dutch Belted; Ayrshire. 

CHAPTER III— JUDGING SHEEP. 

Method of Examining Sheep; Deception Due to Trim- 
ming; Estimating Age by the Teeth 107 

I. JUDGING SHEEP FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 109 

Feeding Type that Gives the Best Gains; Feeding Type 
Bringing Most at Maturity; Type Desired by the Butch- 
er; Quality; The Importance of Condition; Judging 
Condition; Importance of Dressed Weight; Considera- 
tion of the Consumer; Qualities of the Fleece; Examin- 
ing the Fleece; Quantity of Fleece; Density; Length 



CONTENTS CONTINUED. 

of Staple; Quality of Fleece; Softness; Crimp; Sound- 
ness; Condition; Purity; Domestic Wool; Territory 
Wool; Blanket Wool; Lustre; Brightness; Yolk; Do- 1 -""' 
mestic Wool; Territory Wool; Blanket Wool; Classifi- 
cation of Wool; Commercial Grades; Scale of Points 
for Fine Wooled Sheep; Scale of Points for Fat 
Sheep. 

II. JUDGING SHEEP FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 126 

Formation of Types; Value of Breed Type; The Ram; 
The Ewe; Judging Lambs and Flocks. 

III. OFFICIAL STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 130 

Southdown; Shropshire; Hampshire; Suffolk; Ox- 
ford; Cotswold; Wensleydale; Dorset Horn; Cheviot; 
Delaine, Spanish Merino; Black Top Spanish Merino; 
Tunis. 

CHAPTER IV— JUDGING SWINE. 

I. JUDGING FAT HOGS 145 

Form; Quality; Head; Eyes; Ears; Jowl; Neck; 
Shoulder; Front Legs; Chest; Sides; Back; Loin; 
Hips; Rump; Hams; Hind Legs; Scale of Points for 
Fat Hogs. 

II. JUDGING BACON HOGS 152 

Condition; Form; Weight; Shoulder; Side; Scale of 
Points for Bacon Hogs. 

III. JUDGING SWINE FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 156 

The Boar; The Sow. 

TV. OFFICIAL STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 158 

Berkshire; ^Hampshire; Poland China; Chester 
White; Duroc-Jersey ; Victoria; Cheshire; York- 
shire; Middle White; Small White; Small Yorkshire; 
Suffolk; Tamworth. 



CHAPTER I. 
JUDGING HORSES. 

To furnish reasons for many of the points that will be 
submitted in discussing the types of horses, it becomes nec- 
essary to consider the horse as a mechanism in which the 
bones are levers, the muscles the source of power and the 
nervous system the stimulator of the muscles. 

I. THE ANATOMY A BASIS OF STUDY. 

1. The Bones as Levers. The three classes of levers 
are all represented in the anatomy of the horse. The first 
class may be fittingly illustrated by a pair of scissors ; the 
power is applied at the holes for the fingers, the fulcrum is 
in the center where the blades are united and the applica- 
tion of the power is at the points. This is the strongest 
form of leverage and it is employed in the skeleton of the 
horse by the parts involved in the extension of the limbs. 

The lever of the second class may be said to be clearly 
represented by a wheelbarrow. The power is applied at 
the handle, the weight is in the center and the application 
of the power is at the wheel. This leverage in the horse 
enables it to sleep standing or to stand without feeling 
much strain. It is in action in such parts as that in the 
region of the humerus. 

The leverage of the third class is represented by a pair 
of sheep shears. The power is applied at the center, the 
fulcrum is at one end and the application of the power is 
at the other. This leverage is not common but it is shown 
in the action of the lower jaw of the horse. The masseter 



muscles of the jaw apply their power to the center of the 
jaw bone, the fulcrum is at the point where the under jaw 
joins the head, while the application of the power is at the 
teeth. 

2. Action of the Muscles. In considering the leverage, 
the attachment of the muscles and their nature are impor- 
tant. As the muscles consist of bundles of fibres, it is easy 
to understand that when these fibres are long, they possess 
more elasticity than when they are short. The long muscle 
with long leverage, added to by length of the bones is more 
favorable for quick action or speed, while the heavier mus- 
cle is more favorable for draft or power. The attachment 
of the muscles to the skeleton is also an important feature. 
When the muscles by means of their tendons are attached 
to prominences, thus enabling them to work some distance 
from the bones that furnish the leverage, it is easy to see 
that the action of the muscles would be more effective. 
Hence, in most joints there are prominences to give the 
muscles the most favorable attachment. 

In this connection it will be interesting to study the pro- 
portions of the bones of the skeleton to find reasons for the 
advantages which are supposed to originate with different 
proportions. In general we look for short bones in those 
parts where the function is simply the transmission of 
power ; while we desire greater length in those parts where 
the muscles, the source of power or speed, are to be found. 
In the front leg for instance it is desirable to have the 
distance long from the elbow to the knee, with the propor- 
tions showing a much greater distance than from the 
knee to the fetlock joint for the reason that the distance 
over which the power travels should be as short as pos- 
sible that it may be economized and but little of it lost 
in transmission. 

3. Function of the Nervous System. In studying the 
horse as a mechanism, more than bone and muscle should 
be included. The stimulation for action comes from the 
nerve power or force. The nerve pow r er is represented 




Ancient and modern schools in stock judging. In early times what 
was known in regard to the judging of stock had to be garnered under 
the environment and with the material shown in the upper illustration. 
Modern facilities and methods are shown in the lower illustration, which 
is a photograph of the stock judging pavilion at the Iowa State 
College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, with the first class to come 
together for special instruction in stock judging. Three hundred were 
in attendance at this school, January, 1901. 



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THE ANATOMY A BASIS OF STUDY 7 

centrally by the brain and from there it is carried to all 
parts of the body by the spinal cord through the main 
channel of the vertebrae, and from this it branches out 
to stimulate many muscles. The stimulation for action must 
come from the nerve centers and these consequently have 
much to do with the quickness and the strength with which 
a horse may act. It has been determined* in the races of 
dogs and other animals showing superior speed, that the 
nerves regulating the heart and lungs have greater power 
than in the instance of those that are slower. Another 
authorityt who has given this feature special study states 
that the degree of contraction of the muscle is pro- 
portioned to the degree of stimulation. This general 
statement serves to sustain the position that the horse of 
strong nervous organization has quicker and more com- 
plete control over its muscles than the one deficient in 
this feature. 

4. Temperaments. To the nervous organization, its 
tone and force, we can largely trace the temperaments that 
are characteristic of horses. The horse of nervous tem- 
perament expresses the fact by being a willing and 
enduring worker in its sphere ; while the horse of lym- 
phatic temperament seemingly lacks zest in its labors for 
the want of tone in its nervous system. The bilious tem- 
perament reflects itself in a bad temper and springs chiefly 
from the condition of the body ; while the sanguine tem- 
perament, resulting from apparently opposite conditions, 
finds expression in a disposition that is kind and willing. 
In this connection it should be stated that the term ner- 
vous temperament is not used in the sense in which it is 
commonly accepted, namely a lack of nervous control; 
for such a condition usually results in an irritable and 
erratic temperament which is devoid of results as ex- 
pressed in work. 



♦Mills, Comparative Physiology, page 211 
tSmith, Physiology of Animals, page 721, 



8 JUDGING DRAFT HOUSES 

II. JUDGING DRAFT HORSES. 

/. General Examination. 

In the general examination of horses, the form, quality 
and action are the chief features requiring consideration. 
This examination takes in the horse as a whole, while the 
structural examination requires detailed criticism of each 
part independent of others. 

5. Form — The Contribution of Skeleton and Muscle. 

To be able to accurately estimate the form of a horse, it is 
necessary to understand the extent to which the form is 
due to the skeleton and how much of it depends on the 
muscular development. 

A comparison of a skeleton of a horse with a living and 
well developed animal will show clearly that some parts 
owe their form to the framework of bone, while other re- 
gions are shaped wholly by the muscle. Beginning at the 
head, it will be noticed that the form of it is determined 
almost altogether by the bones that comprise it. The out- 
lines of the neck, however, are just as distinctly due to the 
muscular development of that region. The shoulder and 
chest are outlined in form chiefly by the skeleton though 
smoothened with muscle. The shape of the leg from the 
knee upwards to the body is determined by muscles of 
that region, while from the knee to the fetlock the outline 
is due largely to the tendons that make the leg at this 
point appear flat from the side. The common supposition 
is that the leg appears flat from the side view because the 
bone is flat, but the fact is the flat appearance is due to 
che degree to which the tendons stand back from the bone. 

6. Propelling Power Resides in Hind Quarters. A 

study of the degree to which the skeleton and the muscular 
development contribute to the form of a horse, brings into 
prominence the idea that most of the power resides in the 
hind parts. The fact that the greatest muscular develop- 
ment is in that region would indicate this. 




Clydesdale Stallion, Fyvie Baron, champion of the breed at International 

Live Stock Exposition, Chicago, 1913. Owned by Cunningham 

Bbos., Wilkesbarre, Pa. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE CLYDESDALE HORSE. 



THE representatives of this breed of Scotch draft horses are usually bay, 
brown, black or chestnut in color, with white markings. In conforma- 
tion, the leading- characteristics sought are the possession of weight with 
quality and action. While the adherents of the breed recognize the value 
of weight yet they always associate with it quality of structure with superior 
mechanical action, and in judging a class of horses of this breed these 
features should have equal prominence. The head in the typical Clydesdale, 
though sometimes out of proportion to the other parts, is usually possessed 
of intelligent features. To secure the action desired the shoulders must be 
sloping so as to permit a free and long stride in the walk and trot ; the arm 
must necessarily be full muscled, legs fluted and flat with a fine feather 
springing from the edge. The pasterns which have received much attention 
in the formation of this breed, should be decidedly sloping, the hoof head 
or top of the foot should be large, and no amount of fine feather or excel- 
lence of pastern should be allowed to overbalance the necessity of a good 
sized foot, correctly shaped and of splendid wearing texture. The back 
should be short and, though seemingly low from the extra style secured by 
high carriage of head, should never be weak, which is prevented by short- 
ness in this part, and with an easy rising and full coupled loin running 
smoothly into a strong croup. The quarters should be well muscled and the 
hind legs in addition to having every evidence of quality should be properly 
set, meaning thereby that they stand close and the parts have correct pro- 
portion in relation to each other. In no case should style be allowed to sup- 
plant essential draft qualities, as it would be a fault of judgment to permit 
high carriage and flashy action to attain prominence over a deep middle, 
strong coupling in association with properly set limbs, as the source of 
Clydesdale popularity is the degree to which they combine the many essen- 
tials of a draft horse with activity. 




Suffolk stallion, Eendesham Cupbearer. 
cultural Society Show, 1899. 



First at the Royal Agri- 



DESCRIPTION OF THE SUFFOLK PUNCH HORSE. 

*|* HIS BRITISH breed of draft horses is exceptionally uniform in type, owing 
■ to the fact that they have been long established and have been carefully 
bred for this feature. They are chestnut in color and the best representatives 
in form show a type that is low set, short legged and deep bodied. - Consider- 
ing the average weight of the breed they show an unusual amount of this to 
be due to the extreme development of muscle. The bone is most frequently 
of a high quality and the limbs clean cut in every feature, while feet of dur- 
able texture are among their common attributes. They have a well estab- 
lished reputation for being docile in temperament, easy keepers, steady when 
working, and activity is a leading quality of the breed. Desirable weight is 
sometimes absent in its representatives and frequently when this is ample it 
is secured by abnormal fatness rather than by general massiveness. While 
the fact that their qualities, chiefly activity and durability, especially adapt 
them for general farm work of lighter draft purposes, yet the importance of 
the other essential and draft qualities, especially weight should not be over- 
looked by the judge in the show ring. 



8b 




Clydesdale Mare, Harviestown Barroness, champion mare of the breed 

at the International Live Stock Exposition, Chicago, 1913. 

Owned by R. A. Fairbairn, Westfield, N. J. 




Clydesdale gelding Sensation. In 1896 this horse was champion 
gelding of Scotland and then weighed 2184 pounds when shown by Mr. 
William Clark of Netherlea, Scotland, who paid $600 for him. After 
working during the intervening time on the streets of Liverpool, he was 
~;hown at Chicago at the International Exposition in December, 1900, 
where he won a $100 special for the best aged gelding in harness. 
Photo taken December, 1900. This horse was bred by Mr. John Craw- 
ford, of Scotland and he was sired by the Darnley horse Gartsherrie 
(2800). 



8c 




The imported .^ercheron stallion Hautbois, winner in aged class at 
the International Exposition in 1911. Shown by McLaughlin Bros., 
Columbus, Ohio. 

DESCRIPTION OP THE PERCHERON HORSE. 

IN THE establishment of this French breed of draft horses the guiding 
ideal has been to develop an active and durable type of draft horses suited 
for drawing loads at a rapid pace. The degree to which weight is desirable 
in the modern draft horse has resulted in the production of a heavier type 
with these characteristics yet in evidence. The modern type of this breed 
is short legged, compactly and stoutly built. The representatives which best 
exemplify the type show an active temperament, intelligent heads, short, full 
crested necks, with deep body and wide croup. To meet the requirements 
of their patrons they must possess with this abundance of quality, attractive 
style and active movement. The modern type shows a difference from the 
original in being black in color and somewhat closer to the ground than 
those first imported. The original gray Percheron had for its peculiar char- 
acteristics an unusual combination of strength and free action with style 
and endurance. They had an abundance of style, with round bodies and 
an exceptional quality of bone. The highest type of this breed in the present 
show rings should be typical of an active draft horse with the quality and 
the substance to justify durability. To serve this purpose to the fullest 
extent the necessity of regular and straight action with properly set limbs 
should not be a secondary consideration in any show ring, and in the mind 
of the judge no amount of flashy action and toppiness should be allowed to 
overbalance these features. The weight that is necessary in representatives 
of this breed should be made up of a desirable quality of bone with muscle in 
those parts where real strength resides and not by a development in regions 
that have little to do with pulling power. 



8d 



GENERAL EXAMINATION 



It will be noticed that the form of the loin, the shape of 
the croup, the fullness of the thigh and quarters are due 
in the greatest degree to the extra development of muscle 
in these parts. The front quarter of the horse is bare of 
muscle in comparison with the hind quarter. 

Another reason for accepting this theory is the differ- 
ence in the manner of the attachment of the fore legs to 
the body, compared to that of the hind legs. The shoulder 
blade is loosely attached to the trunk while the hind leg 
connects with the body through the agency of an unusually 
strong ball and socket joint. The shoulder blade plays 
loosely, seemingly for the purpose of lessening the concus- 
sion the leg receives from contact with the ground, while 
the hind legs in their connection with the pelvis make a 
joint that is the most powerful of the body. 

7. Consideration of Condition. In examining draft 
horses it is well to remember that defects that are often 
apparent to the eye in the instance of light horses, require 
more careful observation to detect them in heavy horses. 
The defects are usually harder to see owing to the degree 
to which the horses may be pampered. Draft horses may be 
fed to such a high condition and in this way so "veneered" 
that it becomes a very hard matter to detect the struc- 
tural defects. A horse in lean serviceable condition will 
often show many defects especially in the body that a 
thick covering of fat would hide. In judging draft 
horses it is necessary to observe the greatest precaution 
so as not to mistake such padding with fat for dvelopment 
of muscle. 

8. Form — Massive, Broad, Deep. In form the draft 
horse should be broad, square, close to the ground and 
well proportioned. It is necessary to remember that power 
rather than speed should be the outcome of the effort of 
a draft horse. It is evident that the size of the muscle 
has more to do with power, while the length of the muscle 



10 JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 

is indicative principally of speed. There is a combination 
of power and speed which is desirable to secure in the 
draft horse but as in all things opposed to each other it 
is impossible to secure the highest development of both 
in the same individual. It has been stated by a writer 
on this subject* that in the instance of animals of short 
bones, slight angularity and short muscles, the conditions 
are most favorable for drawing heavy loads, and animals 
with long bones, long muscles and slightly angular joints 
are especially adapted for speed. 

9. Advantage of Weight. In considering the form, 
weight should be given a high valuation, for a horse that 
does not weigh at least 1,500 pounds should not be con- 
sidered a draft horse. In addition, this weight must be 
the outcome of strong bone, heavy muscles and large pro- 
portions and not have its origin in excessive fatness. As 
to the importance of weight it may be illustrated best by 
citing what is said to be the first experience that inventors 
had with the locomotive. When this was being perfected 
before its introduction as a means of transportation, it 
is stated that a small model of a locomotive with thejiec- 
essary track arrangement was used by those desiring to 
bring it into practical use. It was found in the model 
that the wheels would not adhere to the track but would 
spin around and waste the power. Considerable study was 
given to the best means of overcoming this difficulty. It 
was thought that the wheels should have cogs and the 
track furnished in the same way but a better plan was 
happened upon by accident. The inventor having a small 
load in form of bags to take over the track, instead of 
putting it in the car of the model train threw them across 
the locomotive and when steam was generated the train 
started without any of the difficulties that had been before 
observed. He found through this that the locomotive to 
exert its power to the best advantage should have a pro- 
portionate weight and it ultimately assisted in the per- 

* Smith, Physiology of Domestic Animals, page 756. 




The illustration on the right hand shows a deficient fore leg for a 
draft horse, as it lacks muscle, with straight, coarse pastern and shelly 
feet. The shoulder is also too straight and the legs very deficient in 
quality, as the hair is coarse and wiry, which may be noted by com- 
parison with the one on the left. The latter shows good feet, sloping 
pasterns, strongly supported knee, rather weak fore arm, and mod- 
erately sloping shoulder. 




Percheron mare Castille 78956 (64553.) 
mare at the International Exposition in 1911. 
Wayne, 111. 



Champion Percheron 
Shown by Dunhams 



10a 




Shire Stallion, Rowington Drat King, champion of breed at English 
Royal Show in 1913. Photo by Parsons. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE SHIRE HORSE. 

Z1MONG the representatives of this long established breed of English draft 
•'■ horse the most desirable form is low, broad and massive. Weight is con- 
sidered a leading feature and so with this we must associate the attributes 
o: being heavily built, muscular, with large bone and rather slow movement. 
Strength of shoulder has been preferable to slope, which has probably given 
power in the collar but detracted from the freedom and length of the stride. 
The body of the best representatives is of exceptional merit, being large in 
girth, deep, strongly coupled with broad, short back and heavily muscled 
quarters. Their points of excellence are undoubtedly exceptional weight, 
made up of heavy bone, full muscular development, with width and depth 
of form; asosciated with these qualities there are kindred deficiencies which 
are sometimes in evidence, meaning thereby a lack in general quality, coupled 
with a sluggish temperament. The superior consideration which has been 
given to weight has frequently overbalanced the claims of action, conse- 
quently while showing to excellent advantage standing there are some which 
fail to sustain their merit when their action is shown. A lack of quality in a 
draft horse must necessarily be discountenanced for durability depends on 
this and also on the set of the limbs. 



10b 



GENERAL EXAMINATION 11 

fection of the locomotive. The same principle attached it- 
self to the draft horse as a motor. It has been further illus 
trated in this way — a driver with a rather light horse was 
trying to take a cartload of grain up a hill, the horse tried 
several times to accomplish it but would only get partly up 
the hill when the load would draw him back. After study- 
ing the matter the driver took some bags out of the cart and 
put them on the horse and accomplished his object. The 
same principle is applied as in the instance of the loco- 
motive. He had added just so much to the weight of 
the horse and this enabled him to overcome in a degree 
the weight of the load. The factor of weight is not only 
of value in matter of work but this is also observable 
as an influence in the general market. 

10. Market Value of Weight. Arranging the sales re- 
ported by a leading firm of Chicago, during 1893, accord- 
ing to the weight of the horses sold, it will be seen that 
the variation in price is in accordance with the weight of 
the horse, as follows : 

Average Average 

Weight. Price. 

1400 $155.87 

1450 159.15 

1500 169.15 

1550 176.56 

1600 176.62 

1650 208.64 

1700 212.89 

1750 236.14 

1800 258.33 

It will be noticed that there is a constant increase in the 
prices from the lighter to the heavier weight and this 
factor of weight seems to be so marked as to dominate all 
other merits. The weight increasing from 1,400 to 1,800 
pounds advanced the price about $100, which means that 
the added weight within this range was worth about 25 
cents per pound on the general market. 

11. Quality with Substance Necessary for Durability. 

Of all desirable features to be sought in a draft horse that 
of strong, clean and firm bone is one of the most important. 



12 JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 

The leg below the cannon should be flat, the bone should 
feel firm and the tendons should stand out distinctly from 
the bone. There should be such a feeling about the bone 
of the legs as to warrant the assumption that it is of a fine, 
firm texture. If you will compare the texture of a piece of 
hickory wood with that of tamarac or larch, which differ 
markedly in their relative strength, the difference which 
exists in the bone of horses will be made clear. Although 
a horse has never been known to break its leg in this region 
by severe exertion yet the importance of strength of bone 
in these parts is of high value, not simply because of its 
wearing quality but also largely for what it indicates. It 
will be found that in the instance of a horse that has what 
is generally known as flat, clean bone with hard defined 
joints, its endurance is double that of a horse showing the 
opposite quality. In those breeds which have hair on 
their legs or "feather" as it is sometimes called, the qual- 
ity of the hair is an index to the nature of the bone. 
Coarse, porous bone, and coarse skin are associated and the 
latter gives rise to coarse hair; while on the other hand 
fine, silky hair is accepted as an indication that the bone 
is of close and hard texture. The mistake sometimes made 
of considering small bone a characteristic of quality should 
be guarded against as this is a very detrimental feature in 
a draft horse. In heavy horses the important considera- 
tion is to secure as close a combination as possible of 
quality with substance and weight. 

12. Action — Straight, Regular. The common working 
pace of the draft horse is the walk and for this reason it 
deserves prominence. In its sphere the draft horse is only 
at times urged beyond a walk so that it becomes a very 
important attribute of this horse to be a good walker. In 
criticising the walk of a draft horse, the action should be 
noted from three points of view — before, behind and from 
the side. In approaching, the horse should carry his head 
high and the stride should be regular. The feet should be 
lifted clear of the ground and placed down evenly as if u? 




A Champion Belgian Stallion, shown by Crouch Bros., Lafayette, Inch 



DESCRIPTION OF THE BELGIAN HORSE. 

Though a product of the art of the horse breeders of Belgium in 
more recent times, this breed is quite uniform in build and strong in 
ability to stamp its characters on mares of other or no particular lines 
of breeding. The type popular in America is more upstanding and has 
more quality in legs and points than that preferred in Belgium, where 
bulk and compactness of body conformation are prized even at what 
seems to be the expense of quality in underpinning, from an American 
view point. The Belgian is of a very quiet disposition. 



12a 




Shire mare, Hendrie Crown Princess, first in 1898 and first and 
reserve champion Royal Agricultural Society Show, 1899. Sold for 
$5,500 at Lord Wantage's auction sale. 











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A pasture scene at Gregory Farm, White Hall, 111. 



12b 



STEUCTURAL EXAMINATION 13 

deliberation. From the side it may be noted if the hind 
and fore legs work in unison. Horses with short backs 
and long underlines present the best view from the side 
while in action but on the other hand those with long 
backs and weak loins usually drag their legs in a slovenly 
way. Viewed from behind the action of the hock should 
be carefully noted. The flexion in this region should be 
free and straight. It is a common weakness of the hocks 
to be turned outward when raised, but more frequently 
the hocks are bent in too much and the feet thrown out of 
line. As a rule the stride should not be too long but well 
balanced with a movement quick and elastic. 

13. Trotting Action. The ability to trot well is not 
generally considered a valuable attribute for a draft horse, 
as it is claimed that to walk well is a much more useful 
achievement. Good trotting action, however, is not only 
valuable in itself but it also brings with it many other 
qualities such as activity, style, balance of conformation 
and other features that are desirable in any class of horses. 
The draft horse in trotting should go level, straight and 
regular, for any deviation from these qualities are usually 
evidences of unsoundness or the absence of a balanced con- 
formation. The legs, both fore and hind, should flex freely 
at the hocks and knees, for a rigidness of movement of 
these is indicative of defects of some kind. A stilted hock 
action is much too common in draft horses and is very 
often due to the fact that the hock is not properly set as 
may be observed in all hind legs that are too straight. 
Such are usually lacking in reach and power. 

II. Structural Examination. 

14. Head — Lean, Medium Size. Coarseness of the head 
is a prevalent fault. While it should be of only medium 
size there should be sufficient breadth between the eyes 
and the face lines should be clearly defined with the total 
length of the head proportionate to the rest of the body. 
It should be well set on the neck and carried gracefully. 



14 JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 

The nostrils should be large and of a healthy color. An 
examination of the mouth, though usually made to esti- 
mate the age, should include inspection for the most fre- 
quent defects in this region which, in heavy horses are 
parrot mouth or overshot mouth and troubles of the teeth 
The eye should be bright, full and mild with no appearance 
of film to interfere with the vision. In looking at the eye 
it is well to remember that the natural shape of the pupil 
is elliptical, while a spherical form indicates blindness o* 
impaired vision. Haziness of the eye, one being smallei 
than the other or a wrinkled eyelid are indications of oph- 
thalmia. 

15. Neck — Strong, Lengthy. The neck should have the 
appearance of being strong and massive and also of suffi- 
cient length and well arched. Undue length of neck 
especially in draft horses is so rare that it may be con- 
sidered unknown. 

16. Shoulders — Sloping, Muscular. While a decidedly 
upright shoulder may give increased power in the shafts, 
it must be remembered that it may be in an extreme posi- 
tion in this respect, and if so it forces the step to be short 
and slow. It is easy to see that a moderately oblique 
shoulder favors a long, quick step and at the same time it 
detracts but little from the power. When the shoulder is 
very upright the concussion upon the feet is increased and 
hence this conformation is generally associated with side- 
bones and ringbones. Activity and elasticity of movement, 
especially in the walk is a desirable feature of the heavy 
horse and such is very seldom found in connection with an 
upright shoulder. 

17. Chest — Deep, Full. The chest should be deep and 
comparatively broad giving great volume and lung room. 
It is best estimated by the girth, which is the body's cir- 
cumference behind the fore legs. Horses that are slack in 
that part, are generally of weak constitution without aver- 
age staying power. Exceptional width in the chest usually 



STRUCTUEAL EXAMINATION 15 

results in rolling and pitching in action, but if the shoulder 
blades fit snug to the body this is not generally noticeable. 

18. Arms — Sloping. The humerus or bone that forms 
the arm should be short and sloping so as to bring the fore 
legs properly under the body. In addition it should be 
well covered with muscle. 

19. Fore Legs — Wide, Defined, Pore Arm Large. The 

fore arm should be large and its prominence should be due 
to a large bunch of muscle which gives the horse complete 
control of his legs. It is an especially valuable feature to 
notice in a draft horse for the reason that it is not as 
easily padded with fat as the rest of the body. 

20. Knees — Broad, Defined. A broad, clean knee is im- 
portant and there should not be the least shrinkage in the 
breadth below it. The extremities should be lean and the 
tendons should stand out prominently from the rest of the 
leg. In Clydesdales and Shires there should be a fringe of 
fine, silky hair starting from behind the knee and running 
to the fetlock and this should spring from the edge of the 
leg. It is well to bear in mind that this "feather" very 
often gives one a false impression of the width of the leg 
below the knee. Horses that are coarse about the fetlocks 
with matted, wiry hair in this region are as a rule more 
subject to the skin diseases characteristic of these regions. 

21. Fetlocks — Clean, Wide. This joint should be clearly 
defined without any fullness, due to windgalls. In addition 
it should be wide so as to give favorable attachment to the 
strong tendons that pass this point. 

22. Pasterns — Sloping, Springy. The pastern of the 
draft horse should be medium in length and it should be 
critically examined especially in regard to its slope, for 
this has much to do with the durability of the horse 's feet 
and also has an effect on the animal's action. A glance at 
the skeleton in this region will show that there are four 



16 JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 

small bones below the fetlock joint. The first one below 
this joint is the one that forms the pastern and below this 
there are two others continuing the slope of the pastern ; 
while the fourth is located at the juncture of the two just 
mentioned. It is evident that it is desirable for the pastern 
bone to slope at least forty-five degrees, for if it is 
straighter than this, the concussion given to the foot is 
not dissipated over all the structures as it should be. A 
horse putting the foot down (except when severely taxed 
in draft and then the toe reaches the ground first) receives 
the concussion on the frog which transmits it to the ten- 
dinous tissue padding the heel of the foot. From there it 
passes to the bones of the foot apparently about the region 
of the first joint made by the three bones, the navicular, 
coffin and the coronary, which are admirably arranged in 
the leg having a sloping pastern to each receive a share 
of the buffeting. If the pastern is sloping it would seem 
that only a small part of the concussion is likely to reach 
the pastern bone and this seemingly would be completely 
spent before the fetlock joint would be reached. This 
joint when the pastern slopes properly, swings in a sling 
of ligaments and tendons and consequently when the parts 
below slope considerably, it is much more effective in pro- 
tecting the bones of the leg from the irritation that arises 
from concussion. It is easy to see why navicular disease, 
sidebones and ringbones, are most frequently associated 
with straight pasterns. The concussion from the foot in 
the straight pastern falls most severely on the first joint 
formed by the navicular, coffin and coronary bones and 
consequently it is about this region that these various bone 
diseases are located. Concussion produces irritation, 
which continued results in inflammation followed by bony 
deposits. To give the pastern the proper springiness, a pro- 
portionate length should be associated with the slope. The 
slope, however, is of still more importance than length or 



l^ules Governing Position of the Limbs of the Horse When Standing. 




FRONT VIEW OF FORE LIMBS. 

A vertical line downward from the point of the shoulder should fall upon the center of the 




SIDE VIEW OF FORE LIMBS. 

A vertical line drawn downward from the center of the elbow joint should fall upon the 
centerof the knee and pastern joints and back of the foot; and a vertical line drawn down- 
ward from the middle or the arm should fall upon the center of the foot. Cut A of Plate II re- 
presents the right conformation. B, shows the foot plaoed too far back; C. too far forward; 
D, "knoe sprung" and E. -'knock kneed." 



*rt 



**r 



, 






SIDE VIEW OF HIND LIMBS. 

A vertical line drawn downward from the hip joint should fall upon the center of the foot 
aud divide the ga->Uln In the middle; and a vertical line drawn from the point of the buttock 
should coincide with the angle of the hock and pastern joints. Cut A of Plate III represents 
right conformation. B, Cand D represent common defects. 




REAR VIEW OF HIND LIMBS. 

A vertical line drawn downward from the point of the buttock should fall upon the center 
of the hock, cannon, pastern and foot Cut A of Plate IV represents conformation. B, C, JU 
and K represent common defects. 



16a 




-5 ft 

GO C 



Kjli 



STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 1? 

size. The features of the joints at both ends should be 
clearly denned, showing that they are completely free from 
puffiness, sidebones or other diseases or blemishes. 

It may be stated here that pasterns that are upright in 
a mature horse generally become more so with age and the 
action depreciates in proportion. Such a conformation 
gives but slight command of the feet and the horse that 
has it literally forces the feet into the ground or batters 
them on the hard pavement of the city streets. 

23. Feet — Large, Dense, Concave Sole, Large Prog. 

Diseases and defects of the foot are exceedingly prevalent 
among heavy horses. As sound feet are rather the excep- 
tion, and this is an important structure, considerable atten- 
tion should be directed to it. The foot is made up of three 
bones. These are covered by a highly sensitive secreting 
layer. The external surface is made up of the wall, sole 
and frog. In shape the proper foot is somewhat irregular 
as the outer quarter running back to the sole curves consid- 
erably outward, while the inner quarter is straighter. This 
shape it will be easily seen not only gives a strong hold 
upon the ground, but it also decreases the possibility of 
the inner edge of the foot striking the opposite leg or inter- 
fering. In color the foot should be dark and it should have 
a waxy appearance. The angle formed by the hoof from 
the ground to the top should be about fifty degrees. One 
of the parts to be examined most critically is the frog. This 
should be plump, large and elastic. Just above the frog is 
what is known as the sensitive frog, which is a mass of 
blood vessels and nerves and above this again is a fatty 
frog which acts as a buffer. On top of the latter is the 
small navicular bone. This bone is enveloped in a very 
sensitive secreting membrane and if this becomes irritated 
in the least through concussion resulting from the frog 
not fulfilling its functions as a buffer then inflammation at 
once sets in ; the fluid for lubricating the joint is not se- 
creted ; then follows absorption of the cartilage and finally 



18 JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 

disease of the bone which interferes with the function of 
the joint. These all result in excruciating pain and greatly 
lessen the horse's utility. Wide, open hoof heads (this 
has reference to the top of the foot) are very desirable. 

24. Body — Short, Broad Back, Deep Ribs. The typical 
draft horse should stand comparatively high in front. This 
should not be due to straight shoulders or height of the 
withers, for when these are high it will generally be found 
that they are not well covered with muscle. Undue length 
of the back, very often sunken, is a common defect of draft 
horses. Another feature to look for in viewing the barrel 
is the breadth and depth of the ribs. If the body is not 
round and the ribs well sprung and deep, the chest is 
likely to be narrow. The volume of the chest behind the 
withers is an index to the capacity of the lungs, and it is 
a fact that horses that are light there and short in the hind 
rib easily become languid and depressed during exertion. 
The horse with a poorly sprung rib making a shallow barrel 
and light loin is usually a poor feeder and ill doer. 

25. Loin — Thick, Broad. The loin should be thick and 
broad. If there is a slight elevation over the loin due to 
an extra development of the muscle it may be considered 
as indicating strength, though it detracts from the sym- 
metry. 

26. Croup — Broad, Muscled. The croup should be 
broad and thick with muscle. There is considerable differ- 
ence in draft horses in regard to the slope of the croup. In 
some it appears as if they had been hit with a board in the 
hind quarter giving the croup an extreme slope, while in 
others it runs almost straight. The main factor which adds 
to i the strength of the croup is not the slope of it but the 
degree to which it is muscled The slope that runs from 
the center of the hips to the root of the tail is made by the 
vertebrae to which some important muscles are attached. 
The other slope which runs from the sides of the hip joints 
as seen from the side has perhaps more to do with the 
favorable application of power in this part, than the slope 



STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 19 

that has been first mentioned. It is easy to see that when 
a muscle is perpendicular to the weight to be lifted the 
power is applied in the most advantageous way, just the 
same as when you wish to lift a weight you stand straight 
over it instead of trying to lift it at arm's length. There 
seems to be no real reason why the croup should slope so 
markedly as it does in some strains of horses, as it certainly 
detracts from their appearance. 

27. Thighs— Muscled ; Quarters Full. Passing down to 
the hind leg the thigh should be closely examined for the 
development of muscle in that region. The quarters should 
also be observed with the same object in view. There is a 
vast difference in horses in this respect, and it will some- 
times be found that horses very heavily muscled at the 
croup are very lightly muscled in the quarters. It is a bad 
defect for a draft horse to be deficient in muscle in the 
quarters, for it is from these parts that they obtain most 
of their power to pull. 

28. Hock — Wide, Defined, Properly Set. The hock 
should be closely examined, for in this joint there is likely 
more work done than in any other single joint of the body. 
Narrow, tied-in hocks are more subject to curbs than those 
that are broad. Fleshiness or coarseness about the hocks 
is very prevalent among draft horses and it is well to ex- 
amine such closely for bog spavins. The tendons running 
from the hocks should be large, lean and firm. It is a com- 
mon defect for a draft horse to be too straight or too 
crooked in the hock. One that is set properly gives more 
power. The worst trouble and the most common one to be 
noted in hocks of draft horses is that of fleshiness or ' ' gum- 
miness, " and such are not only more liable to hock trou- 
bles, but it indicates coarseness of organization which is 
not usually associated with durability. In looking at the 
hock it should appear wide both from in front of the 
horse and the side, especially so from the latter point of 
view. The point of the hock should be as sharp as possible 
and the same may be said of all its features. Some horses 



20 JUDGING DEAFT HORSES 

are especially sharp in the prominences of the hock leading 
some to question their freedom from spavins. This forma- 
tion is desirable for the reason that it is usually associated 
with the best quality of bone and tendon and further it 
gives this region more power because of the more favorable 
attachment of the tendons that pass these points. 

SCALE OF POINTS FOR DRAFT HORSES GELDING. % 



GENERAL APPEARANCE: 






Weight, over 1,500 lbs.; score according to age 4 

Form, broad, massive, proportioned 4 

Quality, bone smooth, hard; tendons lean; skin and 

hair fine 4 

Temperament, energetic, good disposition 4 

HEAD AND NECK: 

Head, lean, medium size 1 

Muzzle, tine; nostrils large; lips thin, even 1 

Eyes, full, bright, clear 1 

Forehead, broad, full 1 

Ears, medium size, well carried 1 

Neck, muscled, crest high; throatlatch fine; windpipe 

large 1 

FORE QUARTERS: 

Shoulder, sloping, smooth, snug, extending into back 2 

Arm, short, thrown back 1 

Fore Arm, heavily muscled, long, wide 2 

Knees, wide, clean cut, straight, deep, strongly sup- 
ported 2 

Cannons, short, lean, wide; sinews large, set back. . . 2 

Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong 1 

Pasterns, sloping, lengthy, strong 3 

Feet, large, even size; horn dense; sole concave; bars 
strong; frog large, elastic; heel wide, one-half 

length of toe and vertical to ground 8 

Iiegs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the 
point of the shoulder should fall upon the center of 
the knee, cannon, pastern and foot. From the side, 
a perpendicular line dropping from the center of the 
elbow joint should fall upon the center of the knee 
and pastern joints and back of hoof 4 

BODY: 

Chest, deep, wide, low, large girth 2 

Ribs, long, close, sprung 2 

Back, straight, short, broad 2 

Loins, wide , short, thick, straight 2 

Underline, flank low 1 



GENERAL EXAMINATION 21 

SCALE OF POINTS FOR DRAFT HORSES — GELDING 

Continued 
HIND QUARTERS: 

Hips, smooth, wide 2 

Croup, wide, muscular 2 

Tail, attached high, well carried 1 

Thighs, muscular 2 

Quarters, deep, heavily muscled 2 

Gaskin or lower thighs, wide muscled 2 

Hocks, clean cut, wide, straight 8 

Cannons, short, wide; sinews large, set back 2 

Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong 1 

Pasterns, sloping, strong, lengthy 2 

Feet, large even s^ze; horn dense; dark color; sole con- 
cave; bars strong; frog large, elastic; heel wide, one 

half length of toe and vertical to ground 6 

Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from 
the point of the buttock should fall upon the center 
of the hock, cannon, pastern and foot. From side, a 
perpendicular line from the hip joint should fall 
upon the center of the foot and divide the gaskin in 
the middle; and a perpendicular line from the point 
of the buttock should run parallel to the line of the 
cannon 4 

ACTION: 

Walk, smooth, quick, long, balanced 6 

Trot, rapid, straight, regular 4 

Total 100 

III. JUDGING LIGHT HORSES. 

As in the draft horse the most important matters to 
notice in the general examination are the form, quality 
and action of the horse under inspection. 

29. Three Classes of Light Horses. The light horse in 
respect to form and other characteristics may be divided 
into three main classes: the carriage or heavy harness 
horse, the road horse and the saddle horse. These may 
be spoken of as the raost common types recognized in the 
market, while the pure bred representatives of them are 
to be seen in the breeds of coach horses, the standard trot- 
ter and the standard saddle horse. 

30. Heavy Harness or Carriage Horse. The distin- 
guishing features of the coach or carriage horse are its 
symmetry and action. The height should be from 15]/2 to 
16 hands to make a good appearance. In contrast with 



22 JUDGING LIGHT HORSEb 

the roadster the carriage horse is very smooth and sym- 
metrical. The smoothness should be due to plumpness 
of the muscle over all parts. In the carriage type the 
head should be comparatively small and lean, the ear 
neat, the neck long and carried gracefully, the body 
round and plump and the limbs clean cut, with well 
formed and durable feet. Graceful carriage and stylish 
action are leading qualifications. 

31. Analysis of Style. When in any posture, style is 
a very desirable attribute in any carriage horse. A criti- 
cal examination of this type would indicate how far the 
possession of style depends on the adjustment of the 
parts of the framework. When a carriage or coach horse 
possesses characteristic style, there seems to be an ap- 
propriate blending of all proportions of form. In an- 
alyzing this it will be found that most of the lines have a 
similar direction, in addition to the fullness of contour 
already discussed. The line running from the poll to the 
nose seems to be parallel to that of the shoulder, the line 
dividing the pastern also has a similar direction, and the 
line of the thigh in the hind quarter corresponds with the 
slope of the hind pastern. Considering the lines that run 
different from these it will be noticed that the one made 
by the arm from the point of the shoulder to the elbow 
is very similar in direction to that made by the ischium of 
the pelvis and this again is similar to that of the lower 
thigh. Each part of a typical carriage horse seems to 
bear a fixed relation to every other part both in size, 
length and slope giving the horse that symmetry which 
contributes so much to its style and beauty while stand- 
ing or in action. 

32. The Trotter or Roadster. The chief characteris- 
tics of the roadster are speed and stamina. The ability to 
trot fast is a desirable quality and the ability to maintain 
a rapid gait is equally essential in a horse of this kind. 
In addition to being able to stand steady road work, such 



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Arabian stallion, Shahwan, bred by Ali Pasha, Sherif, Egypt, sold 
to W. S. Blount, in 1892, and taken by him to England and afterwards 
sold to present owner, J. A. P. Ramsdell, Newburg, N. Y. The photo- 
graph shows this horse to fos a 'model of symmetry, style and quality. 



DESCRIPTION-OF THE ARAB HORSE. 

THOUGH there is some unreliable sentiment associated with the Arab horse, 
yet there is not a vestige of doubt but that they are of superior symmetry 
and quality. This is perfectly summed up by Sheik Abd.-El.-Kader : "The 
horse of pure descent is distinguished by thinness of its lips, and the cartilage 
of the nose, by the dilation of its nostrils, by the leanness of the flesh en- 
circling the veins of the head, by the graceful manner the neck is attached, 
by the softness of its coat, its mane and the hairs of its tail, by its breadth of 
chest, the largeness of its joints and leanness of its extremities. According 
to the traditions of our ancestors, the thoroughbred is still better known by 
its moral characteristics than its physical peculiarities." Major R. D. Upton 
in "Newmarket and Arabia" gives the characteristics of the Arabian horse in 
the following statement which is true of those familiar to the author : "The 
Arabian is a horse of the highest courage, in stature about 14 hands 2 inches, 
a horse of length, power and substance, combined with the elastic and sinuous- 
like movement of the serpent. He is a very perfect animal ; he is not exag- 
gerated — in some parts large, meagre and diminished in others. There is a 
balance and harmony throughout his frame not seen in any other horse ; the 
quintessence of all good qualities in a compact form." 

The head of the typical Arabian horse is exceedingly straight and the eye 
markedly full and bright. Perhaps the most striking feature of the type is the 
round and extra well ribbed barrel. In action the movement of the legs is 
very peculiar, being very strong and elastic. Though small, the form is ex- 
ceedingly smooth and symmetrical, while the evidences of quality are strik- 
ingly shown. 




Thoroughbred Stallion, Henry of Navarre. Owned by the U. S. Govern- 
ment and used for siring cavalry remounts. Photo taken 
at 22 years of age. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE. 

■ T IS of much assistance in understanding the type of the thoroughbred to 

■ remember that they are the oldest of the breeds of horses and that they 
have been bred for many years for a leading purpose and this has generally 
been running speed. To secure this there had to be associated with the 
mechanism that produces it, unusual quality of structure, stamina and am- 
bition. The running record for a mile is held by Salvator, the time being 
1.35% on a straight track. The common colors among the representatives of 
this breed are brown, bay and chestnut. The distinguishing features are a 
refined appearance, especially clearly denned lineaments, with length of neck, 
deep chest, short upper line, long under line, somewhat straight croup, mus- 
cular thighs, neat pasterns, dense bone, firm muscle and active temperament. 
An inclination to ranginess in type is required, with a racy apearance, usu- 
ally resulting in a horse standing 16 hands. Extreme breeding for the lead- 
ing characteristics mentioned makes it necessary to discountenance in the 
show ring light bodies and a general appearance which has given rise to 
the term "weedy," which is also associated with lengthy pasterns and long 
legs. Being highly sensitive in organization they frequently reflect an erratic 
temperament. Their purpose being principally for racing, high quality with 
endurance and spirit are cardinal qualities, and it is these same features 
which have made them useful in the production of strong drivers and stylish 
carriage and saddle horses. 



22b 



GENERAL EXAMINATION 23 

a horse must be well mannered so as to be safe and 
pleasurable to drive. 

The typical roadster may be said to be about 15J/2 
hands high and about a thousand pounds in weight. In 
conformation the horse of this class is somewhat narrow 
in front, deep chested, wide at the loin and very muscular 
in the quarters. Every feature about the horse appears 
clean cut, giving a hard finish which indicates durability. 
The lineaments of the face and the outlines of the neck 
and especially the distinctness with which the tendons 
stand away from the leg are very desirable features. 

The type lacks the fullness and symmetry that are 
characteristic in the carriage or coach horse. To do ef- 
fective and hard work on the road is the sphere of the 
roadster and the type that has been evolved is an illus- 
tration of the evolution of a form for a specific purpose. 
The type of the best campaigners that have marks of 2 :10 
or better will show a similarity that indicates the type 
towards which the trotter is tending. Though it should 
be noted here that the roadster in show form will show 
quite different outlines from one that has been subjected 
to the hard training that the campaigner receives. 

To describe the roadster form in detail it may be said 
that the head is proportioned to the rest of the body, 
wide between the eyes and somewhat sharp at the poll. 
The neck is slim, long and very often carried somewhat 
straight owing to the continual use of the top check. The 
shoulder slopes very markedly and extends well along to- 
wards the back. The arm is short and this with the slope 
of the shoulder makes the under line much longer than 
the length of the back. The fore arm is long, the cannon 
short and the pasterns with sufficient length and slope. 
The horse appears too far from the ground in proportion 
to its height. The back is short and strong, rising some 
at the hips and the croup is strongly muscled. Perhaps 
the most noticeable feature of the type is the exceptional 
length from the hip joint to the point of hock and then 



24 JUDGING LIGHT HOESES 

from the point of the hock to the fetlock joint the distance 
is short, making the hock appear as if set low. 

33. The Pacer as a Roadster. As a roadster, the pacer 
has many claims for consideration chiefly on account of 
the speed that characterizes this gait and the fact that it 
is easily maintained on smooth city roads. It is, how- 
ever, mainly the quickness with which full speed is at- 
tained that makes the pacer so popular among the road 
riders of our cities. The difficulty that a pacer encounters 
on rough broken roads or in snow, makes it necessary to 
have a smooth hard road to enjoy the pleasures of the gait. 

Among pacers there is often noticeable a type that is 
not desirable in any class. It can hardly be called typical 
of this class of horses for many of those that are fastest 
at this gait, do not have the very low fore hand, the 
cramped hind quarters or bent-in hocks that are often 
connected with this form. The horse that paces smooth 
and true exhibits an easy and pleasing manner of going 
as well as one effective in producing speed, but there are 
many varieties of this gait that are the reverse of this 
because of defects in conformation which preclude rapid 
movement in any other manner. 

34. The Saddle Horse. Horses for use under saddle 
are of numerous kinds, yet the essential features are com- 
mon to them all. For pleasure-riding there are park and 
road types, the former being the most showy and with 
higher action. Both are ordinarily docked. Only three 
gaits, walk, trot and canter, are called for in these horses. 
Then there is the very stylish and highly trained horses 
preferred in some sections and having the following five 
gaits: (1) Walk. (2) Trot. (3) Single foot or rack. (4) 
Canter. (5) Slow pace, running walk or fox trot. The 
gait known as single foot or rack is very similar to the 
pace, except that in the latter the two feet of the same 
side move together, while in the single foot the hind foot 
reaches the grround shortly before the front foot on the 




Five Gaited American Saddle Stallion, Montgomery Chief, noted as a 
sire and grandsire of five gaited horses. 




A Good Type of Three Gaited Park Saddle Horse. 



24a 




A Typical Hunter (Heavy Weight). Observe the rangy conformation 

and abundance of muscle and bone that are characteristic of this 

class of horse. 




24b 



Cavalry Remount. Photographed at the U. S. Army Headquarters at 
Fort Myer, Va. 



GENERAL EXAMINATION 25 

same side. The gait known as single foot is considered 
synonymous with that of the rack and it has been de- 
scribed as exactly intermediate between the true walk 
and the true trot, each foot apparently moves independent 
of the other with what has been termed a "one at a time 
movement. ' ' 

In addition to the above types there are hunters, polo 
ponies, and cavalry horses that are used exclusively un- 
der saddle. The hunter must have the ability to carry 
weight and jump well and also go long distances. The 
polo pony is not over fifteen hands high and must be well 
trained, speedy and quick in turning. The cavalry horse 
must have the long neck, sloping shoulders, high withers 
and short back essential to all saddle horses and must 
have endurance and stamina. 

Saddle horses have many features common to other 
light horses. Quality and manners are as essential to a 
good horse for any use under saddle as are the particular 
points of conformation that have been named. 

35. Quality. This term applied to horses has reference 
to their bones, skin and hair. Evidences of quality are 
clearly cut features, glove-like skin, silky hair and firm, 
clean bone. In the instance of the horse possessing qual- 
ity, the lines of the face are clearly defined and in every 
region there is a complete absence of coarseness. It 13 
possible in such a horse to easily distinguish the muscles, 
tendons and bones and when slightly exerted, so that the 
coat lies smooth, the veins in the skin show clearly in an 
intricate net work as delicate and fine grained as the skin. 
This freedom from coarseness in the joints and tendons 
show a soundness in these features that guarantees dur- 
ability. Coarse hair is associated with coarse skin and 
that is a true indication of soft, spongy bones which 
quickly become diseased when subjected to the strain of 
hard usage or neglect. 

36. Endurance Indicated by Quality. The connection 
between a horse's staying power or endurance and its 



26 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 

quality is frequently seen when subjected to severe road 
work, but the reason for the connection is not so plainly 
evident. The fine skin that is one of the features of high 
quality is considered to be of value for what it tells of the 
internal organization of the animal, for it may be said in 
a general waj r that the one skin covers the horse internally 
as well as externally. The inner coat of the skin which 
covers the ribs and all external parts is a continuation of 
that which lines the stomach and intestines. If the skin 
covering the internal region is soft, fine and pliable it 
indicates that the secretions are healthy and it would 
seem natural to reason from this that the lining of the 
stomach would be in the same state, and if such is the 
case it is in a better condition to digest the food that 
goes into it, thereby increasing the horse's recuperative 
powers and endurance. 

37. Durability Associated with Quality. Quality in a 
horse's limbs and feet is especially desirable for the rea- 
son that such prove more durable under stress or strain. 
In looking for this feature in the leg, it is a common prac- 
tice to run the hand over the cannon bone. In doing 
this the skin and hair are felt against the bone and if 
there is the proper quality there, the skin seems to melt 
from under the hand letting the latter come in close con- 
tact with the bone which feels firm and smooth. The fin- 
gers seem to touch each other as they pass between the 
tendon and the bone of the leg, when the latter has the 
right degree of quality. It is a fact that in finely bred 
horses that undergo unusual trials of endurance, such as 
the thoroughbred and the trotter, the texture of the bone 
is decidedly firmer and closer than that of horses bred 
for slower work. Another evidence of quality is to be seen 
in the lines showing the division of the muscles as these 
should appear distinct in the horse of quality and the 
joints of the limbs should not show any fullness but be 
clearly defined and hard. 




Photo by Philips, Independence, Iowa. 
Allerton, record 2 : 09 %, in action, showing the reach and movement 
to secure greatest speed. 



f . 


^n v }} 


*PP 5*^pCfJ9gH 




•V. _^' 


\ '"" i_ ""' *• * 



Online, record 2:04. owned by the International Stock Food Co., 
Minneapolis, Minn. The photograph shows clearly the movement of 
the legs when a horse paces level and true. 







c C 



c u 






26b 



GENEKAL EXAMINATION 



38. Action — Why Highly Valued. In the market for 
light horses there is no single feature held in higher esti- 
mation than that of desirable action. It has different de- 
grees of valuation when associated with the various types 
of horses, but to sell well they all must have as much as 
may be displayed and used to advantage. The fact that 
proper action associated with the coach type brings ex- 
ceptional prices in the market, would of itself make the 
subject an important study, but when its influence on 
the prices of all classes of horses is considered, it at once 
assumes the position of being the most valuable charac- 
teristic connected with the classes of light horses. 

Good action is mainly desirable for its utility and also 
for the many other qualities which it indicates. It will 
readily be expected that the horse with good action is 
more durable and more enjoyable, as the work is done 
easier, and also more profitable, for more of it is accom- 
plished. But looking further into the subject it is sur- 
prising what other attributes are dependent on it. The 
action of a horse reflects its temperament, proves the bal- 
ance of its conformation and indicates soundness. "With 
right action there must be a dash and zest which is the 
outflow of a sanguine temperament making light of the 
hardest effort. Then the conformation which is but a liv- 
ing mechanism of levers, pulleys and transmitters, must 
have the delicate adjustment and balance, that gives 
grace and smoothness to every movement. Further there 
cannot be any unsoundness to render less free or firm 
the step as both these characteristics must be prominent 
in actions of all kinds. The more action is studied, the 
deeper becomes the conviction that every attribute of the 
horse contributes to it. Every quality comes more or less 
into play and for that reason the difficulties in the way 
of securing the typical action of the high degree of merit 
are almost insuperable. 

39. The Walk— Active, Straight, Level. Excellence at 
this gait is a very desirable quality in all varieties of 



28 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 

horses, and unlike the trot its meritorious features are the 
same in all, as it has no connection with type. In the 
enjoyment of a road horse there is much to admire in the 
manner in which he conducts himself when walking". It 
is questionable as to which is the most pleasurable to ob- 
serve — the walking of the horse whose step is evenly 
timed and nervy, or the trotting of one that has all the 
grace, style and snap that characterizes the coacher. 

40. Observing Straightness of the Walk. In moving 
away from you the feet of the active walker leave the 
ground with a quick snap, showing in its passage the 
reflection of the whole shoe. After leaving the ground 
with this peculiar snap the foot swings upward and for- 
ward, then the knee unfolds, the pastern carries the foot 
gracefully forward and it again comes to the ground 
lightly but firmly with the characteristic spring and snap 
that identified the first movement. The feet move straight 
away, swerving neither to the left or to the right, nor 
should the folding of the knees or the flexing of the hocks 
result in an outward pitching or spreading. A horse that 
will lift and plant his foot in the way described almost 
invariably has the upheaded and commanding appearance 
in movement which is so admirable in the harness horse. 

41. Manner of Noting Levelness. The crucial test of 
the balance of a horse's walk is the side view. Any va- 
riation from proper structural proportions results in 
wobbling, hobbling or an otherwise uneven walk, and all 
these are readily seen from the side. The levelness with 
which a horse walks is one of the best evidences that the 
legs work in harmony. The most common deflection from 
this is attributable to a long, slim coupling which gives 
the onlooker the impression that the horse might break 
away into two parts near the region of the loin. In de- 
fective conformations of this kind the stride of the hind 
limbs is short and he usually has an uneven, choppy gait 
that is unsightly as well as ineffectual in covering dis- 
tances. On the other hand an opposite relation of the 




Photo by Schreiber. 
Ph >tograph of the American standard bred trotter, Geo. Wilkes, 
2 :22 ; founder of the great Wilkes family of standard bred trotters. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE STANDARD BRED HORSE. 

THE CHIEF characteristics of the American standard bred horse is speed 
at the trotting and the pacing gaits ; the world's trotting record for one 
mile being held by The Abbott, the time being 2:03 ] / 4, while the world's 
pacing record for the same distance is held by Star Pointer, the time being 
1:59%. The type which should be encouraged in the show ring is that 
which conduces towards this end, while at the same time showing the char- 
acteristics required for endurance, ambition and the essential features of a 
road horse. This means the possession of general features represented by 
an intelligent head and extremely light neck, low, deep chest, oblique shoul- 
der, long, muscular forearm, strong knees, short cannons, slim, sloping pas- 
tern, and feet of good wearing quality, with round body rising slightly over 
the loin ; neat, long croup ; thighs full with low hocks that are strongly con- 
structed and clearly defined. Such deficiencies as are due to undersize, lack 
of style and substance should be points for underscoring in the show ring. 
In this connection, it is of importance to understand the difference that may 
exist in representatives of this breed when they are undergoing the strenuous 
work of campaigning or when they are retained only for show and stud pur- 
poses. As many carriage horses have their origin in this breed, as well as 
most of the roadsters and trotters, emphasis should be given to the qualities 
which mean endurance, ambition and high finish. 

It sometimes occurs that both pacing and trotting action compete in the 
show ring in a class for roadsters or standard breds. Both these gaits must 
be recognized and the preference given to the one that shows the most purity 
and is the best in every particular of its kind. The distinction must be 
made between the high knee and hock action of the carriage horse and the 
more reaching and easier folding action of the roadster or trotter. See 
standard, page 59. 




Photo by G. A. Tadman. 
Hackney stallion, Royal Danegelt 5785, owned by Sir "Walter Gilbey, 
Elsenham Hall, Essex. Winner of championship at London Hackney 
Show, 1898, and at the Manchester show of the Royal Agricultural 
Society of England in 1897. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE HACKNEY HORSE. 



»B*HE HACKNEY was established in Great Britain as a breed to meet the 
■ requirements for a horse of extreme smoothness, with gracefully curved 
outlines, having the action necessary to show these to the bejt advantage. 
The head is light, neck muscular and curved but free from heaviness ; 
shoulders smooth and laid well back ; body circular, compact, short ; hips 
smooth ; quarters plump with muscle, legs short with tendons clearly defined. 
Their action is noted for its straightness and height, and the regularity of 
knee and hock movement. There is a variation in the types of the breed, some 
showing more upstanding with abundance of quality and straighter lines, 
while others are shorter limbed, fuller made and especially strong in action 
from a carriage standpoint. The secretary of the Hackney Horse Association 
of Great Britain has summed up the general description of the Hackney, 
which, as he says, fitted old style and new ideal, in the following : "A power- 
fully built, short legged, big, broad horse, with an intelligent head, neat neck, 
strong, level back, powerful lines and as perfect shoulders as can be pro- 
duced ; good feet, flat boned legs, and height of from 15.2 hands to 15.3^. 
In addition to showing a type required for a carriage horse, the hackney must 
possess as a necessary essential true carriage or coach action. 



GENEEAL EXAMINATION 29 

parts, close coupling and short back, with long legs, is 
likely to give use to a slovenly swinging gait, producing 
clicking, stumbling or other deficiencies. If there is a 
flaw in the mechanism of the front legs, it is usually made 
evident by the movement of the front feet, especially as 
they are about to touch the ground. If the limb propor- 
tions are ungainly the feet do not seem to reach the 
ground at the proper stage, either turning too much on 
the heel or not turning enough and precipitating the toe. 
Prom behind it is easy to observe if the walk of the hind 
limbs is level thus being free from any hitching, wobbling 
or unevenness in the stride. 

42. The High Stepper in Action. The highest priced 
action in the general horse market is that of the high 
stepper. The peculiarity of this action consists in lifting 
the knees inordinately high and flexing the hocks so 
that they come close to the body and keep the legs well 
under it. From the standpoint of action alone, the higher 
the knees and the hocks are lifted the more valuable is 
the horse, provided the type and other features more com- 
mon are equally satisfactory. The feet must be thrown 
forward without any dishing on either side and the hocks 
must pass each other close and in line with the forward 
movement. It is easy to understand that while this meth- 
od of movement is the most showy and stylish, it is not 
serviceable action for a road horse. The front legs soon 
succumb to the heavy concussion they would be called 
upon to stand under hard driving. But this action is 
sought only in the horse that is used for short drives 
about the city where style is paramount to speed and 
stamina. While it is recognized that the high stepper 
should have as many as possible of the other qualities of 
excellence in addition to high action, yet all others are 
considered of minor value among horses of this class. 
" All-around action only to be considered" is the current 
phrase in the prize lists that provide classes for competi- 



30 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 

tion among the high steppers, which means a combination 
of shoulder, knee and hock action. 

43. The Carriage Horse — Manners When in Motion. A 

connoisseur of horses will see much more than the legs of 
a carriage horse when moving. As such a horse moves 
before an appropriate vehicle with the latitude of a light 
hand assisting him there are flashes of gracefulness from 
every motion. With this there is a quality of mind that 
gives buoyancy to the step and accounts in no small de- 
gree for the uplifted carriage of the head. It is expres- 
sive of a happy temperament that gives gracefulness to 
every poise and smooth flow to every movement. Even 
such a minor organ as an ear plays its part, the eye, too, 
shows the fire from within and challenges the critic for 
its meed of praise in measuring the step and alertness in 
giving it security. Scan the lines of the neck, and notice 
their tenseness and yet the unusual elasticity it shows 
when occasion offers for the movement of greater grace- 
fulness. The shoulder plays with freedom and the smooth 
turned loin and quarter seems the only regions that are 
not taking part in this unusual display, though in this 
immobility they show their real strength. 

44. Straight and Regular Action. As to the action of 
the fore legs, it is straight away with continuous folding 
and unfolding. In the action of the carriage horse there 
must be some style and dash and high lifting of the feet, 
but never enough of it to make the action unserviceable. 
At no time is the fore leg held in poise as it does not 
dwell either in flexion or extension. The foot snaps from 
the ground and is then carried forward while the limb 
unfolds, as if following the rim of a wheel. It seems to 
reach the ground at the right stage of the unfolding so 
that it is not held in suspense at any point along the line 
of descent. The feet pass close and in a straight line so 
that there is no swaying or dropping down of the fore 
hand with each step. The hind foot leaves the ground 
with the same quick movement and at no time is it al- 




High stepper in action. Photographed from "Driving for Pleasure," 
showing the extreme degree to which the knee and hock action may be 
developed by heavy shoeing and training. 




Leader, the Scotchman, in action, showing the folding of the knGQ 
and the flexing of the hock desired in carriage horses. 





"I- .■ 

"... 






Photo by Schreiber. 
Leader,, the Scotchman, winner of numerous prizes at the Boston 
and Philadelphia horse shows in the heavy harness classes. Illustrative 
of the fullness and symmetry of form that should be a feature of the 
carriage or coach type. 




Photo from Rider and Driver. 
The Demon and Lothario showing the type desirable in a pair of 
carriage horses. 



30b 



GENEKAL EXAMINATION '31 

lowed to hang back so as to give the horse the .appearance 
cf not gathering himself well together. 

45. The Driver's Sensation of Action. After all is 
written that it is possible to write about the action of the 
carriage horse, there is something else that must go with 
it which cannot be described with sufficient vividness to 
make the novice appreciate it. It has something to do 
with power and its connection between the animal and its 
master seems to be the driving lines. As you sit behind 
the horse of true carriage action and conduct you feel 
your proximity to a powerful mechanism that is under- 
going a test of its minutest parts. If anything fails every- 
thing will be demoralized but it is the feeling of strength 
and power in the animal that allays unnecessary fears. 

Without leaving this feature connected with the car- 
riage horse let us study its relation to the trotter. Sub- 
stance and strength in the carriage horse gives momentum 
to the occupants of the somewhat cumbersome carriage, 
while the trotter loses these for speed and stamina. Be- 
tween the trotter and its driver the feeling is that of flight 
instead of power in motion. The difference in the feeling 
resulting from following the movement of these two 
classes of horses might be better expressed by reference 
to the difference in the feeling that one has when stand- 
ing beside a swift turning windmill, as compared with 
the effects of observing the turn of a ponderous water 
wheel. The former takes advantage of every breath of 
wind and speeds a merry clip without apparent exertion 
or strength; the other impresses one at once with its 
power and in a lesser degree with its combination of 
strength and speed. 

46. The Trotter— Speed and Stamina. The leading 
feature of the action of the trotter is speed at the trotting 
gait, but there are many others that must be companions 
of this to result in the greatest development and the chief 
of these is stamina or the ability to maintain the neces- 



32 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 

sary gait. It is generally thought that if a horse has 
speed he has the one essential necessary to make a trotter 
or a good road horse. Not only is speed desirable but 
there must be a true balance of parts, that insures their 
protection together with trueness of stride. Being true 
and level gaited guarantees the greatest durability and 
that with an ambitious turn of mind gives us that very 
desirable quality in the trotter, termed "gameness" or 
stamina. Of all features of the trotter 's action it must be 
the most evident that it is not in the least wasteful of 
energy. While that of the carriage horse or high stepper 
must display effort, the trotter should move so as to 
leave the least impression of this. 

Less roll to the knee, more propulsion from the stifle 
and less motion in the hocks carries the trotter forward 
closer to the ground and with less expenditure of force 
and without the higher lifting of the knee and hock which 
is characteristic of the high stepper. There is much more 
extension of the limbs in the trotter, as shown in the 
reach of the fore leg, while the hind legs pass back far- 
ther and reach farther forward than in the action of the 
high stepper or carriage horse as the latter must keep 
his legs under him to gather himself together in the 
proper degree. A wider spread in the movement of the 
hind legs in the instance of the trotter is not as bad a 
fault as it would be if associated with the carriage horse. 
It is frequently noticeable as a distinction between the 
action of a trotter and coacher, that the latter is balanced 
in stride when going an easy gait but becomes unbalanced 
or weak when urged beyond it, while the trotter may 
very often show an uneven gait when moving slowly but 
when urged to the limit of its speed, displays truly bal- 
anced action without any tendency towards losing its 
stride. 

47. The Pacing Gait — Level and True. A study of this 
gait will disclose the fact that there are more variations 
in it than in any other form of action. Horses pace in 




The illustration on the right hand shows a well bred and intelligent 
head, the subject being Lola Ronan, standard bred road mare owned 
by the author, while that to the left is a photograph of a head showing 
lack of breeding and deficient in fullness of forehead. 




Two photographs to illustrate the differences in the appearance of 
horses' heads when they are trimmed and untrimmed. The head shown 
trimmed is that of Boralma, 2:08, the unbeaten 4-year-old trotter. * * * 
The trim appearance of the head is to some extent due to the fact that 
the foretop has been clipped, the ears trimmed, the mane clipped back 
of the foretop. The companion head, on the right, though of a French 
Coach mare showing abundance of quality, is yet very coarse in appear- 
ance, largely due to the fact that the head has not been trimmed. The 
mane has not been cut away. The long hair is in the ears, the foretop 
has not been removed, while the long growth of coarse hair below the 
jaw has not been trimmed. 









-'Jmt* 










^ " ? - : ' "- ■! 


'' ''; 


k 




I 




l 





These photographs have been selected to show the difference in the 
dispositions of horses. The upper one shows desirable temperament 
with harmony between horse and rider. The lower one shows horse 
and rider out of touch with each other and the horse discloses by ex- 
pression and countenance a strong will and vicious disposition. 




Photo from Horse Show Monthly. 
A row of good heads. The heads of the horses shown here indicate 
a high order of intelligence, borne out by the fact that they all possess 
sufficient intellect to act. Beginning on the left hand their names are 
Charley Adams, Nixon, Alice, Blair, Charlie Ross, Ella, Maud. They 
are used in the stage plays Sporting Life and the Great Ruby. They 
are owned by the LeRoy Payne Co., of 171 Michigan Avenue, Chicago. 
Without exception they show intelligent heads in that they display full 
foreheads, open countenances, large eyes, with abundant width between 
them. 



32b 



STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 33 

many ways, some lurching, others shuffling and many 
more wobbling in an unsightly manner but, however they 
may go, they are nearly all characterized by possessing 
speed. A level and true pacer displays a sightly gait. In 
pacing level and true the body remains steadier than in 
any other movement. The legs move in harmony with the 
directness of a machine. . The nervy, machine-like pace 
peculiar to many of the fast pacing animals is a study in 
the degree to which the minimum of effort results in the 
maximum of speed. Some horses pace because of bent 
hocks, others because of ungainly proportion but when 
the gait results from breeding and is the outcome of 
straight and direct movement, it is difficult to imagine a 
gait with less friction or display of effort. In the instance 
of the horse that possesses true excellence at this gait, if 
you were to shut off your view of the limbs in motion, 
you would have the impression that the animal was stand- 
ing on a rapidly moving train hidden from your view, so 
little does the body and other parts above the line make 
any display of effort. As a rule the pace from the stand- 
point of the spectator is an unsightly gait, but one that 
is usually thoroughly enjoyable from the point of view of 
the driver. Owing to the ease with which the pacer 
moves and the lightness with which they speed over pave- 
ments, combined with the rapidity with which they can 
reach their speed, the pacer has become very popular 
among city road riders. 

IT. Structural Examination. 
Thus far the features that enter largely into the general 
appearance of the horse, the form, quality and action, 
have been considered, but in addition to these qualities 
there are numerous details of structure and soundness 
which have a predominating influence on the value of any 
of the classes that have been discussed. Not only must 
horses of the classes described prove sound to be of serv- 
ice, but to sell well they must also show the strength of 
structure that wards off the possibility of any unsound- 



34 JUDGING LIGHT HOKSES 

ness developing in the future. A badly constructed hock 
without a curb may depreciate the value of the horse fully 
as much as a curb present on a strong and well formed 
hock. The first does not have a curb solely because it has 
never been subjected to a strain, while the curb in the 
latter instance must have been due to stress of more than 
common severity. To discuss this division of the subject 
in detail it will be necessary to arrange the material that 
follows so as to consider the various parts of a horse com - 
pletely. 

48. Head — Straight, Lean. The shape of the head and 
the countenance of a horse adds greatly to its appearance, 
and as this is the part which is most frequently observed 
it becomes of some importance. The line from the ears to 
the point of the nose as seen from the side should be 
almost straight. In scanning the photographs of a great 
number of trotters it will be noticed that nearly all stal- 
lions have slight Roman noses while most of the mares 
have slightly dished faces, a distinction which seems to 
be characteristic of the sexes. As a rule it will be found 
that horses of very prominent Roman noses are self willed. 
Small nostrils are generally associated with this form 
of nose and as a consequence we find in such instances, 
that the respiratory or breathing organs lack develop- 
ment. The features of the face should be distinct, with- 
out the least appearance of coarseness or meatiness. A 
lean face is suggestive of good quality in a horse. The 
muzzle should be fine in quality to make the head appear 
at its best. Between the eyes there should be breadth 
enough to give a pleasing frankness to the countenance. 
It is a point of practical value as an index to the brain 
development which is of much importance in a light 
horse, for in this class intelligence is a merit of high 
value. While it is granted that the intelligence of a 
horse depends mostly on the training received, yet there 
is a marked difference in the benefit which horses derive 



STRUCTURxiL EXAMINATION 35 

from training, and that difference may only be accounted 
for by variations in the brain development. 

49. Nostrils— Large, Open. The noctrils of a horse 
should be large, thin, dilatable and of a pink color. 
While there should be no discharges from them, they 
should always have the appearance of being moist. 

50. Eyes— Full, Clear. A bright eye indicates vigor 
of constitution, that is, stamina, staying power, or bottom, 
as it is sometimes called. It is also associated with a 
happy disposition and it seems to be this that accounts 
for the fact that some horses do an enormous amount of 
work with little worry and strain upon themselves. A 
large, full, clear eye is indicative of a kind, generous dis- 
position and good health. 

51. Ears — Erect, Active. The ears should be close to- 
gether and carried in an erect position. They should be 
active and somewhat pointed. Lop ears indicate lassi- 
tude, or in plainer words, laziness. When it is noticed 
that a horse does not shift or move either of its ears to 
any extent to catch sound, it is safe to presume that it 
is afflicted with deafness. On the other hand if it is 
continually moving them, it is advisable to inspect the 
eyesight carefully as it is likely that the extra labor 
imposed on the ears has its origin in the defect of one or 
both of the eyes. 

52. Jaw Bones — Wide, Sharp. Between the jaw bones 
there should be sufficient width for a large wind-pipe 
and also enough to allow the head to play freely on the 
neck. When the space between the jaw bones is very 
narrow it will often be noticed that the horse carries his 
head stiffly, but when there is sufficient width in this 
region, the head is usually carried gracefully and moved 
freely on the neck. The throttle or throat latch should 
be light without any unnatural fullness between the jaw 
bones or heaviness at the juncture of the head and neck. 



36 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 

53. Neck— Arched, Muscled. Nicely moulded and dis- 
tinctly chiseled neck of sufficient length, carrying the 
head gracefully is one of the most beautiful features of 
the light horse. Extending towards the shoulder the 
neck should swell gradually so as to join the body smooth- 
ly. The wind-pipe should be large and appear distinct 
from the rest of the neck and the upper outlines of the 
latter should be sharp. While many excellent road 
horses have what is called a ewe neck, it is none the less 
a defect as it detracts very much from the symmetrical 
appearance. 

54. Chest — Deep, Projecting'. In the light horse that 
is called upon for light work, the chest should obtain its 
capacity more by depth than breadth. The reason for 
this is that the deeper chest permits the freer play of 
the shoulder. It is easy to see that swift, smooth action 
of the fore legs is hardly possible in the broad chested 
horse, mainly because it throws them too far apart and 
out of line with those behind. If will often be noticed 
in this direction that too much width causes the horse 
to pitch or roll in its action. A deep chest is evidence 
of staying power. The conformation of noted cam- 
paigners on the turf, such as Mary Marshall (2:12), The 
Abbot (2:03%), The Harvester (2:01), may be cited to 
illustrate full development in this feature. 

55. Shoulders — Long, Oblique. The conformation of 
the shoulder is one of the parts of all light horses that 
requires critical scanning. To give elasticity to the 
movement of saddle horses and to permit of quick and 
clean action in the roadster, the shoulder should be long 
and oblique. An upright shoulder is very likely to result 
in short, stilted action, frequently accompanied by stum- 
bling, and it is quite a fertile cause of such bone diseases 
as sidebones and ringbones. The high action which is 
desired in the coach horse and the long reaching, clean 
action so sought after in the roadster depends as much 




The photo on the left, Hummer 6112, shows a sloping shoulder and 
a foreleg of quality set properly and strongly supported below the knee 
with correct pastern and excellent foot. Subject of the other photo is 
too straight in shoulder and pastern with weak knees 




Photo of a smoothly turned horse, especially round ribbed and on 
that acount appearing too long in the legs, though not really so. 



















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Photo by Schreiber. 
Hood's McGregor, record 2 :26%, by Robert McGregor 2:11V±. Winner 
of three first prizes Philadelphia Horse Show, 1897, in roadster classes, 
and also first for best appointed road rig. 




Photo by Lillie. 
Saddle gelding, Columbus,, showing Spanish trot. Winner of first 
prize high school class at Kansas City Horse Show, 189 8. Owned by 
C. T. Walker. 



STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 37 

on the obliquity and freedom of movement in the shoulder 
as in any other feature. In addition, a sloping and long 
shoulder strengthens the back and extends the length of 
the under-line. The muscular development of the shoulder 
should also be carefully noted, for if there is an unusual 
bareness or lack of muscular covering it would denote 
the fact that sweeny has affected it. 

56. Fore Legs— Broad, Cordy, Straight. The appear- 
ance of the fore leg from the side should show it to be 
flat and cordy. The flatness shows the tendons to be 
properly attached and some distance from the bone and 
the clean cut appearance denotes the absence of any 
coarseness about the legs. Viewing the legs from in 
front and using a plumb line it will be found in the 
instance of a leg that is straight, that a perpendicular 
line downward from the point of the shoulder, should 
equally divide the knee, cannon, pastern and foot. View- 
ing the fore leg from the side, a similar line dropped from 
the center of the leg at a point where it joins the body 
should nearly divide the leg until the fetlock joint is 
reached and from there to the ground it should fall exact- 
ly behind the foot. Any variation from these two lines 
shows crookedness from either point of view. The leg 
should be long from the elbow to the knee, for the reason 
that free and clean action follows such conformation. In 
these parts it will be noticed that most of the muscles 
extending and flexing the leg, are located between the 
elbow and the knee. If this region is long, the muscle 
must necessarily be long and that produces quick and 
easy action. The muscle of the fore arm flexes and ex- 
tends the rest of the leg, and in order that these motions 
may take place with the least expenditure of power the 
course over which it must travel must be as short as 
possible; that is, the cannon running from the knee to 
the fetlock should be much shorter than from the knee 
to the elbow. 



3S JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 

Mr. H. T. Helm has made a careful study of the effect 
that the proportions of these parts to each other have 
upon the horse's action. He has measured a great many 
horses and finds that their action in the fore legs seems 
to be governed by the proportionate length of the lore 
arm and the cannon. He found that Administrator har- 
superior action in front, and that his cannon was 11% 
inches long, and the fore am 21 inches long. About the 
same proportions were found to exist in the fore legs of 
George Wilkes, and there was no lack of knee action in 
his movement. The actual proportions were 10% to 20 
inches. In Governor Sprague the cannon was 11 inches 
and the fore arm 21 inches, and here the front action was 
not quite as rounding as that of George Wilkes. In the 
instance of St. Lawrence, the proportions were 11% to 21 
inches and the action was noted to be far reaching and 
gently curving. It will be easily understood that the 
strain upon the knees would be greater in those horses 
that were long in the cannons in comparison with the 
length of the fore arm, and it will usually be found that 
such a conformation predisposes a horse to weak knees. 
On the other hand when the fore arm is inordinately long 
the tendency is for the front legs to bend back at the 
knees and give rise to what is commonly termed calf 
knees. 

57. Arms — Short, Thrown Forward. The humerus 
which forms the arm should be short and appear com- 
paratively straight. When it is so, it gives a horse an 
upright appearance and adds to the latter 's style. 

58. Elbows — Free. The space between the leg and the 
body should permit of easy insertion of the hand. If the 
elbow is closer than this or tied in, as it is termed, the 
toes are usually thrown out ; or if the opposite is the case, 
the toes are likely to be thrown in, which makes the ac- 
tion of the horse awkward and dangerous. 

59. Fore Arms — Wide, Muscled. Perhaps the most 
important matter to notice in examining the fore leg is 



STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 39 

the size of the fore arm. or the muscular development 
observable just below the juncture of the leg and the 
body. As fat accumulates very little there it is a safe 
criterion of the muscular development of the animal. 

60. Knees— Wide, Deep, Straight. The knees should 
be broad in front, much broader than the rest of the leg, 
either above or below, and the pisiform bone, which is the 
bone forming the projection at the back of the knee, 
should be sharp and prominent, for to this some of the 
most important muscles of the fore leg are attached. 
Breadth is desirable in such joints, because of the fact 
that the concussion is more evenly distributed, and bet- 
ter spent by the many bones forming the joint, when 
their surfaces are large. The most common defects of 
the knee are calf knees, knock knees, knee sprung, speedy 
cut and scars. 

61. Cannons — Wide, Short, Large Sinews, There 
should be very little shrinkage below the knee as the 
joints require as much support as possible. This defect 
of being tied in below the knee is one of the most com- 
mon weaknesses to be seen in the fore legs of light 
horses. A light horse of common size should measure at 
least 8 inches at this point. The cannon should be short, 
wide and clean and the sinews should be back from the 
bone. It is sometimes noticeable that the cannon is 
thicker than usual which is generally caused by hard 
road work. 

62. Pasterns — Sloping, Strong. The pastern should 
stand at an angle of 45 degrees with the ground, and 
with the cannon it should form an angle of about 135 de- 
grees. When more upright than this, they will cause 
bone diseases, such as sidebones and ringbones, as the 
concussion is very severe in such instances. Moreover, it 
detracts greatly from the utility of the light horse, espe- 
cially those intended for the saddle, as the step is short 
and stilted, and this is very disagreeable to the rider. On 



40 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 

the other hand, sometimes the pasterns of light horses, 
and of thoroughbred horses especially, are too long and 
slanting, which weakens them and ultimately ends in the 
snapping of the suspensory ligament, resulting in the 
horse "breaking down." 

63. Feet— Dense, Waxy, Large. The foot should re- 
ceive careful attention as it has an important part to play 
in the work of the horse, and it is subject to many defects 
and various kinds of unsoundness. It should be of firm 
texture, good size, moderately upright and thoroughly 
sound. It should have a healthy appearance which is in- 
dicated by an oily coat of natural wax. The frog should 
bear the mark of natural usage as a buffer, being spongy, 
and touching the ground at each step. The roof or sole 
of the hoof should be distinctly concave. Flatness, brit- 
tleness and contraction, are the three most common de- 
fects in horses ' feet. It will be noticed in many instances 
that the bar of the foot has been cut away, so that the 
hoof splits from the heel towards the coronet. This is due 
to the blacksmith's practice of cutting away the bars that 
bind the foot together. When this is done the foot begins 
to spread and the crack ultimately extends as far as pos- 
sible. 

64. Ribs — Well Sprung, Deep, Close. The ribs should 
be well sprung from the spine and they should be close 
to each other. It will generally be found that horses hav- 
ing well sprung ribs always make a better appearance 
than those that are flat ribbed; and, in addition, they 
will be found to be easier keepers. It should be noted 
that the round ribbed horse always has the appearance 
of being inordinately long in the legs. This deception is 
due to the roundness of the body. It can easily be seen 
that from a side view the flat ribbed horse presents a 
body of deeper appearance and seemingly has shorter 
legs than the horse that is rounder ribbed. 

65. Back — Strong, Short, Muscled. In its proportion 
the body should be short above and long underneath. 




The illustration on the right is a photograph of the hind quarter of 
St. Saviour, a thoroughbred stallion, showing a clean, strong hock and 
properly set hind leg. The photograph on the left shows a curb on the 
right leg due to a weakly supported hock also improperly set. 




The left illustration shows a hind leg too straight, while the 
one shows the other extreme in being set too far back. 



right 



40a 




Welsh Pony Stallion, Shooting Star. First prize at 1913 English Royal 
Show. Owned by Sir Walter Gilbey. 

STANDARD FOR PONY. 

BEFORE the establishment of the Hackney Horse Society in 1883, the 
dividing line between the horse and the pony in England was vague and 
undefined. It was then found necessary to distinguish clearly between horses 
and ponies, and accordingly all animals measuring fourteen hands or under 
were designated "ponies" and registered in a separate part of the Stud Book. 
This record of height with other particulars as to breeding, etc., serves to 
direct breeders in their choice of sires and dams. The standard of height 
established by the Hackney Horse Society was accepted and officially recog- 
nized by the Royal Agricultural Society in 1889 when the prize list for the 
Windsor Show contained pony classes for animals not exceeding 14 hands. 
The altered Polo rule which fixes the limit of height at 14 hands 2 inches may 
be productive of some little confusion ; but for all other purposes 14 hands is 
the recognized maximum height of a pony. Prior to 1883 small horses were 
called indifferently galloways, hobbies, cobs or ponies, irrespective of their 
height. — Ponies Past and Present, by Sir Walter Gilbey, Bart. 

DESCRIPTION OF WELSH PONY. 

FOR THE information of those interested in this breed, the following de- 
scriptions, furnished to the Polo Pony Society for their stud book (Vol. V.) 
by the local committees, may be quoted: "Height — Not to exceed 12.2 hands. 
Color — Bay or brown preferred ; grey or black allowable ; but dun, chestnut 
or broken color considered objectionable. Action — Best described as that of 
the hunter ; low 'dairy-cutting' action to be avoided. The pony should move 
quickly and actively, stepping out well from the shoulder, at the same time 
flexing the hocks and bringing the hind legs well under the body when going. 
General Character — The pony should show good pony character and evidence 
of robust constitution, with the unmistakable appearance of hardiness peculiar 
to mountain ponies, and at the same time have a lively appearance. Head — 
Should be small, well chiseled in its outline and well set on ; forehead broad, 
tapering toward nose. Nostrils — Large and expanding. Eyes — Bright, mild, 
intelligent and prominent. Ears — Neatly set, well formed and small. Throat 
and Jaws — Fine, showing no signs of coarseness or throatiness. Neck — Of 
proportionate length ; strong but not too heavy with a moderate crest in the 
case of the stallion. Shoulders — Good shoulders most important ; should be 
well laid back and sloping, but not too fine at the withers, not loaded at the 
points. The pony should have a good, long shoulder blade. Back and Loins — 
Strong and well covered with muscle. Hindquarters — Long, and tail well 
carried, as much like the Arab as possible, springing well from the top of 
the back. Hocks — Well let down, clean cut, with plenty of bone between the 
joint ; they should not be 'siekled' or 'cow-hocked.' Forelegs — Well placed ; 
not tied in any way at the elbows ; good muscular arm, short from the knee 
to the fetlock joints; flat bone; pasterns sloping but not too long; feet well 
developed and open at the heel; hoof sound and hard." — Ponies Past and 
Present, Sir Walter Gilbey, Bart. 



401) 



STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 41 

This not only adds to its strength, but it gives the legs 
free play and insures a balanced stride. The horse of 
this conformation under the saddle will unite himself 
more quickly and better, while the same horse on the line, 
or in harness will have a freer and more balanced stride. 
It is the opinion of many that the roach back is an evi- 
dence of strength. It is the most undesirable feature in 
a horse for the saddle, and it is, to say the least, an eye- 
sore in road or in carriage horses. 

66. Loin— Short, Broad, Muscled. It is a defect of 
many horses to be light and narrow at the juncture of 
the body and the hind quarter. If the loin is long or 
slack, that is, if the distance is great between the last rib 
and the hip bone, the horse is likely to be weak in the 
coupling and deficient in action, and when this is viewed 
from the side, it will be noticed that the hind foot fails 
to reach the point where the front foot left the ground. 
This probably is due more to lack of muscle over the loin 
than to any other defect. 

67. Croup — Long, Muscular. The part included in 
the hind quarters should be critically examined, for, as 
it has been previously explained, it is in this region that 
the propelling power resides. The haunch or croup 
should be long and on account of the improved appear- 
ance it should be comparatively straight. When the croup 
is long, it allows a greater play of the main muscles that 
are located in this region. It will be noticed in nearly all 
fast trotters that the croup generally has this character- 
istic. Length of muscle here as elsewhere contributes to 
speed. 

68. Thighs— Muscular, Deep. The thigh should be 
full and plump with muscle which should also extend as 
far down towards the hocks as possible. Some horses 
have this feature so strongly developed that the muscle 
continues to the hock and gives the latter a thicker ap- 
pearance. The thigh should be long, making the hocks 
low. as this contributes to a lon^ stride. 



42 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 

69. Quarters — Heavily Muscled. The quarters viewed 
from behind should show a heavy mass of muscle be- 
tween the legs. Perhaps there is not another part of the 
muscular system that shows a greater variation in de- 
velopment in different horses than the quarters, for 
while some will be cat-hammed there are others surpris- 
ingly full in this part, with deep, hard muscle. 

70. Hind Legs. The set of the hind legs has a direct 
bearing on their liability to diseases. A leg that is bent 
too far forward is likely to develop a curb, while one 
that is too straight is more subject to fullness in the 
hock region, predisposing it to either thoroughpin or bog 
spavin. In looking from the side at a leg that has cor- 
rect conformation, a plumb line from the center of the 
hip joint should equally divide the gaskin and the foot. 
Dropping a plumb line from the point of the buttock it 
should run parallel with the line of the cannon. From 
behind, the same line should equally divide the hock, 
cannon, pastern and foot. 

71. Hocks — Wide, Straight, Clean. The hocks should 
be clean and broad and the point should be prominent as 
the leverage of the most powerful muscles attached here 
depend to a great extent upon this. There should be no 
gumminess about the hocks; the web should be especially 
clean and free from all fleshiness or puffs of any kind. 
Tn running the hand over the hock, all the depressions 
that are characteristic of the sound hock should be easily 
felt and the bone should feel firm without the least indica- 
tion of unsoundness of any part. Too much attention 
can hardly be given to this joint as it is one of the most 
important in the whole frame. 

72. Hind Cannons— Wide, Short, Clean. The hind 
cannons should be comparatively short as such a con- 
formation gives the hind leg a longer stride while at the 
same time allowing the feet to keep under the body 
more. They should also be wide for that gives better at- 



STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 4o 

tachment to the tendons and especially if the width con- 
tinue just below the hock it materially strengthens that 
part. When the support for the bones of the hock is 
slight and narrow at the top of the cannon there is 
greater susceptibility to curbs on account of the weak- 
ness of that region. The fetlock joint should be of nor- 
mal size with good width and particularly free from 
any puffiness indicating windgalls. 

73. Hind Pasterns— Sloping, Strong. The slope of 
the hind pasterns is not of such importance as that of 
the front pastern for the reason that it is seldom that 
this part will be found too straight in light horses. 
There is less concussion for the hind foot to stand, con- 
sequently there is less need for the pastern to be very 
sloping. The pasterns should be of medium size and 
length so that they may be strong. Freedom from thick, 
coarse skin and hair is desirable for in the instance of 
such there is less susceptibility to scratches. 

74. Hind Feet— Dense, Rounded. The hind feet 
should have the characteristics that have been described 
in the reference to the desirable points of the fore feet. 
It may be noted in addition that the hind feet are more 
inclined to become narrow in front and not have the 
nicely rounded surface that is desirable in a good foot. 
The sides of the foot viewed from in front very often 
appear to have shrunken some, making a ridge down the 
center of the foot from the hoof head to the toe and 
leaving the sides flat. Narrowness at the hoof head 
usually accompanies this. The foot should be dense in 
structure, medium in size, with strong, wide heel and 
full front. 

SCALE OF POINTS FOR LIGHT HORSES GELDING. j> « 

sS 

GENERAL APPEARANCE: c*& 

Form, symmetrical, smooth, stylish 4 

Quality, bone clean, firm and indicating sufficient sub- 
stance; tendons defined; hair and skin fine 4 

Temperament, active, kind disposition 4 



44 JUDGING HORSES 

HEAD AND NECK: 

Head, lean, straight 1 

Muzzle, fine, nostrils large; lips thin, even; teeth 

sound 1 

Eyes, full, bright, clear, large 1 

Forehead, broad, full 1 

Ears, medium size, pointed; well carried, and not far 

apart 1 

Neck, muscled; crest, high; throatlatch, fine; wind- 
pipe, large 1 

FORE QUARTERS: 

Shoulders, long, smooth with muscle, oblique, extend- 
ing into back 2 

Arms, short, thrown forward 1 

Fore arms, muscled, long, wide 2 

Knees, clean, wide, straight, deep, strongly supported 2 

Cannons, short, wide; sinews, large, set back 2 

Fetlocks, wide, straight 1 

Pasterns, strong, angle with ground 45 degrees 3 

Feet, medium, even size; straight; horn dense; frog 

large, elastic; bars strong; sole concave; heel wide 6 
Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the 
point of the shoulder should fall upon the center of 
the knee, cannon, pastern and foot. From the side, 
a perpendicular line dropping from the center of 
the elbow joint should fall upon the center of the 
knee and pastern joints and back of hoof 4 

BODY: 

Withers, muscled and well finished at top 1 

Chest, deep, low, large girth 2 

Ribs, long, sprung, close 2 

Back, straight, short, broad, muscled 2 

Loin, wide, short, thick 2 

Underline, long; flank let down 1 

HIND QUARTERS: 

Hips, smooth, wide, level 2 

Croup, long, wide, muscular 2 

Tail, attached high, well carried 1 

Thighs, long, muscular, spread, open angled 2 

Quarters, heavily muscled, deep 2 

Gaskins or Lower Thighs, long, wide, muscular 2 

Hocks, clearly defined, wide, straight 5 

Cannons, short, wide; sinews, large, set back 2 

Fetlocks, wide, straight 1 

Pasterns, strong, sloping 2 

Feet, medium, even size; straight; horn dense, frog 
large, elastic; bars strong; sole concave; heel wide, 

high . . . , 4 

Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from 
the point of the buttock should fall upon the center 
of the hock, cannon, pastern and foot. From the 
side, a perpendicular line from the hip joint should 



IN THE BREEDING CLASSES 45 

fall upon the center of the foot and divide the 
gaskin in the middle; and a perpendicular line 
from the point of the buttock should run parallel 
with the line of the cannon 4 

ACTION: 

Walk, elastic, quick, balanced 5 

Trot, rapid, straight, regular, high 15 



Total 100 

IV. JUDGING HORSES IN THE BREEDING CLASSES. 

The preceding discussion has most to do with the 
judging of the various types of the horse in use for 
pleasure or for work; so that it is necessary to present 
some details that should be observed in making awards 
in the breeding classes. In this work the judge must 
closely discriminate between the peculiar characteristics 
of the sexes and also employ much judgment in de- 
termining the development according to the age. 

75. Sex Characteristics. Preceding birth and for 
some time in foetal life, there are no evidences of sex. 
Such are apparent at birth, but it is not until the ap- 
proach of puberty that the sex characteristics referred 
to here begin to develop. After this period is reached 
the sexes begin to diverge from each other, the male 
acquiring characteristics that are distinctly masculine, 
while the female acquires others peculiarly feminine in 
that they are strikingly different from those of the male. 
The reproductive cells of each seem through their char- 
acteristics to influence the peculiarities of the sexes in 
a remarkable manner. 

76. Differences in Disposition. In all classes of farm 
live stock there are very noticeable differences in disposi- 
tion, that may be credited to the influence of the sex. The 
active disposition of the male animal oftentimes is forced 
to spend itself in the development of viciousness and it 
cannot be disputed that such has been true of many of 
the best, breeding sires, especially among those of the 
lighter breeds of horses and the dairy breeds of cattle. 



46 JUDGING HORSES 

The difference in the nature of the sexes is even charac- 
teristic of the reproductive cells — the sperm or male cell 
being active and smaller, while the ovum or female cell 
is larger and more stable. From this condition through 
the various stages of life the differences in the disposi- 
tion of the sexes is easily traceable. The lamb of the 
male sex becomes combative and more active in disposi- 
tion as he develops while the ewe lamb loses the early 
activity that was common to all and develops into the 
gentler ewe ; the calf of the male has a fierceness of 
mien that seeks active expression in imaginary combats, 
becoming easily excited to anger, when it is noticeable 
that the suppliant bawl has become a fierce roar; while 
the cow has lost the playful energy that she had as 
a calf and now has none to spare for anything but her 
quiet vocation of making milk; the colts tend to de- 
velop the same restless activities while the fillies assume 
the quieter quality of mind common to maternity, and 
in like manner the pigs separate in their dispositions as 
the sex characteristics become pronounced. Thus in all 
live stock the changes of disposition are traceable to 
sexual development and it is because of the close con- 
nection between the two features that many breeders 
consider the characteristic disposition valuable indica- 
tions of future usefulness for breeding purposes. 

77. Differences in Form. In the development of the 
sexes marked differences in form result. The true male 
form is heavier at the shoulders than the female while 
the latter is wider in the region of the pelvis. This 
should be borne in mind in critically examining animals 
of the different sexes, for it may oftentimes prevent an 
adverse criticism which should be favorable comment. 
It is not infrequent to hear the remark passed that a 
ram for instance, in a breeding class, would be an ex- 
ceptionally good sheep if he were as wide behind as he 
is in front. This is thought by some to be the striking 
defect of our mutton breeds (and perhaps it is) but in 




American Standard Bred Stallion, Carmon, at the head of the Govern- 
ment Stud at Fort Collins, for breeding American Carriage Horses. 




Morgan Stallion, General Gates. At head of the Stud at the U. S. 
Morgan Horse Farm, Middlebury, Vt. 



46a 





; >J'MA| 








'"A 






-'■■ V_^ 




: 




it| 




^C- -" s ' : ' : 


i^^.^,- 


\kmmm^ 


• 





A good type of Polo Pony. Ered on a Western Ranch. 




A prize winning Shetland Pony Stallion. 



4Gb 



IN THE BREEDING CLASSES 47 

many instances it is but the universal pattern that nature 
has adopted for the male form. A male of any class of 
stock should be expected to be wider in the chest than 
behind though it should not be weak in the latter part. 
Width, of hip, however, is not the chief qualification of 
the female form; depth in this region or length of the 
barrel and from rib to hip, is of more importance as 
this makes provision for the proper growth of the foetus. 

78. Variation in Features. There are many marked 
variations in the features that are characteristic of the 
difference in the sexes. In the stallion the face has a 
harder look and the head is larger. The neck is fuller 
and the crest or swell of the neck is very pronounced 
and surmounted with a heavy mane. The mare has a 
slimmer face with a softer expression, the neck is thin 
and often ewe shaped and the mane light and fine. In 
cattle the face of the bull is more or less burly and cov- 
ered with wavy hair, the horn is strong and inclined tfv 
roundness while the neck is thick and stout with a full 
crest. In the cow the face is long, free from wavy hair, 
the horn light and flat and the neck thin and in-curved 
on the top line. In sheep the face of the ram is shorter 
and heavier and the neck has a heavy "scrag" or crest. 
The ewe's face is finer and the neck much lighter. In 
swine the boar's head is short and inclined to coarse- 
ness and the tusks are strong and large. The neck is 
full and the bristles abundant and with age the shields 
(thickening of the hide over the shoulder blades) de- 
velop. The sow is smaller in the face, the neck much 
lighter and finer just at the point where it joins the 
head. These things are all features of the sex character- 
istics and their value, which will be discussed in what 
follows, will indicate the degree to which they should 
be looked for in all breeding classes. 

79. Relation of Sex Characteristics to Sterility. 

When the sex characteristics that have been described 



48 JUDGING HORSES 

fail to develop in the mature animal, it is invariably good 
evidence of the lack of procreative power. The effect of 
castration is evidence of the fact that if anything inter- 
feres with the maturity of the reproductive organs, the 
sex characteristics fail to develop. If the operation is 
performed early in life there is a decided epproach to 
the characteristics of the feminine type in the instance of 
geldings, steers, wethers and barrows. On the other 
hand, it is equally true of the opposite sex — thwarted or 
impaired development results in the production of the 
characteristics that are peculiar to the male type. As 
an instance of this the occurrence of "free martins" in 
cattle may be cited. This term is applied to twins in 
which the one is a male and the other a female. The fe- 
male usually possesses the sex characteristics of the 
male as she has the coarse appearance in the head, neck 
and horn, and when this is so it will be found that she 
is invariably infertile. Extreme effeminacy on the part 
of the male is equally indicative of sterility as may be at- 
tested to by the effeminate appearance and the sterility 
that results from inbreeding some classes of stock. Low, 
referring to this, says of closely in and inbred animals, 
"They become as it were sooner old; the males lose their 
virile aspect and become at length incapable of recreat- 
ing their race." Walker (Intermarriages) cites many 
instances that have been observed by different poultry 
breeders, bearing out the proposition that sterility 
through close in and inbreeding with some animals is 
followed by the loss or interchange of sex characteristics. 

80. Relation of Sex Characteristics to Prepotency. 

The non-development of the sex characteristics in the 
male is indicative of the lack of vigor and that in turn 
has a close relation to preprotency or the impressive 
powers of a sire. Effeminacy means a lack of tone in 
muscle and loss of vigor and this is very observable in 
sires lacking in impressive powers, while the most noted 





A yearling Hackney filly, winner of numerous prizes in the leading 
British show rings. 

A thoroughbred yearling, Disguise II, owned by James R. Keene. 
This American bred horse finished third in the Derby, and afterwards 
beat the winner of the race, the Prince of Wales' Diamond Jubilee. 





A group of French Coach yearling fillies at Oaklawn Stock Farm, 
the property of Messrs. Dunham, Fletcher & Coleman, Wayne, 111. 
These fillies were sired by Perfection and they show the form and 
quality desired in coach fillies of this age. 




Standard bred trotting stallion, Allerton, when a three-year-old with 
a record of 2 :12, formerly champion trotting stallion, and within recent 
years the leading sire of standard trotters. Sired by Jay Bird 5060, 
and owned by C. W. Williams, Galesburg, 111. 




48b 



American standard bred stallion Allerton, 2 :09}4- Reproduced from 
a photograph taken when 14 years old. A comparison of this with 
the illustration shown above, which was taken when three years old, 
indicates the development which takes place in a stallion as he ad- 
vances in years. A comparison will also add to the prestige of this 
horse, for it shows how well preserved in form he is, without any 
blemishes, after having passed through severe campaigning. 



IN THE BREEDING CLASSES 49 

sires in the history of breeding" have been remarkably 
virile with the characteristics of masculinity unusually 
developed. 

81. The Stallion Classes. Excepting the sex charac- 
teristics the stallion should have the qualities that have 
been described in the class for geldings. The stallion 
should have the determined expression, the hard fea- 
tures, the high crest and full neck, that are evidences of 
masculinity. With these there should be the active, vig- 
orous temperament, which also indicates virility. The 
testicles should be normal in size and both should be 
visible in the sac or scrotum, for impotency is often in- 
dicated by their non-appearance. 

It is a frequent subject for discussion as to whether 
or not the stallions in some classes should be judged 
solely as to their individual merit or also include the 
merit of their pedigree, performance and progeny. 
Usually the conditions relating to the awarding of the 
prizes are explicit enough to avoid such a discussion but 
where they are not it is best to consider in making 
awards all the attributes that will add to the value of 
the stallion. Pedigree in a breeding class has a value, 
so has performance; and for this reason they should be 
given consideration along with the personal merit of the 
stallion and his progeny. In the instance of a standard 
bred trotter it is assumed by some that the fact that the 
stallion complies with the standard is sufficient consid- 
eration to give his breeding but those who have given 
the matter any study will concede that there is a vast 
difference in the value of the pedigrees of standard 
horses. The judge should be able to discriminate be- 
tween pedigrees and also to be broad minded enough to 
include in his estimate of the different stallions before 
him the other characteristics that make the animal 
valuable for breeding purposes. 



50 JUDGING HORSES 

82. Importance of Correct Conformation. In the 

breeding classes special attention should be given to the 
conformation. A defect of conformation even in the 
smallest particular is very apt to be transmitted and for 
that reason it should be discountenanced in breeding 
stock. It is generally known that even such a slight mat- 
ter as a twist of the fetlock, or the turn of the foot in ac- 
tion is very likely to pass from a stallion to all his get. 
Considering however greater defects such as a curby hock, 
a weak knee or other malformations, it is certainly the 
duty of the judge to pronounce against them. To present 
this feature plainly it may be stated that a breeder would 
be better justified in using a stallion that had a spavin 
on a well constructed hock than one that was without a 
spavin but had a hock that was very defective in con- 
formation; the reason being that in the instance of the 
well constructed hock with a spavin it is certain that the 
horse was subjected to a severe wrench or injury of some 
kind else the spavin would not be there. In the instance 
of the horse with the badly constructed hock it needs 
only the opportunity, which occurs in nearly all kind of 
work, to develop a spavin and the reason there is not one 
there is solely because extra care has been given to the 
protection of this part. Breeding animals of this kind 
may be so carefully tended and pampered that they fail 
to show such diseases as would be produced by their con- 
formation under the ordinary stress of labor. 

83. Hereditary Diseases. . In these classes it is of im- 
portance to have in mind the diseases that are known as 
hereditary. This term does not imply that the disease is 
directly transmitted but that a horse having them trans- 
mits to his get a decided tendency to contract them. 
The newly born foal never shows them, but from its par- 
ent it inherits the defects of conformation that predis- 
poses it towards these diseases. The Royal Commission 
composed of the leading veterinarians of England have 
decided that the following diseases in horses are heredi- 





Sketches of horses' teeth, showing — 1, a temporary incisor of 
characteristic shape; 2, a permanent incisor, broader and longer than 
No. 1 ; ?>, a permanent incisor with lines indicating the appearance 
of the tooth as it is subjected to wear. At "A" the unworn surface of 
the new tooth is shown. At "B" the mark is indicated with the general 
shape of the table. At "C" it is noticeable that the mark becomes 
much smaller while at "D" the triangular shape of the tooth that is 
well worn makes its appearance ; 4, shows the natural mark and table 
of a horse's tooth. It will be noticed that u.ere is a ring of enamel 
around the black mark or center; 5, this sketch shows the table of 
the horse's tooth that has been "Bishoped" or nxed so as to bear some 
resemblance to a young tooth with the natural mark. This black 
mark has been mace in the tooth by the use of a hard instrument. 




2/ 2 to3 Years 

-3'/ 2 to 4 Yecrs 
4 '/a to 5 Years 



Sketch of the permanent incisors, indicating the order in which they 
appear in pairs. The central pair of permanent incisors in both the 
upper and lower jaws appear when the horse is about two and one-half 
or three years of age, the next pair replace the temporary incisors 
when the horse is about four years of age, and the outside pair, making 
a full mouth, usually appear at five years of age. 




> a. : ■ 3 



Five Years 
Lower Incisors 




Six Years 

Lower Incisors 





Seven Years El6HT Year s 

lower Imcisors Lower Incisors 

At five years it will be noticed that the marks are very distinct and 
the tables worn but slightly in all of the incisors. At six years the 
center pair in the lower jaw show some wear, the mark becoming 
smaller. At seven years the second pair have nearly lost their marks, 
while at eight the third or outside pair show considerable wear with 
but a trace of the mark. 





lllllllllfiisliiiiiiiiisiiiiliiliiyii 1 !. 
Ten Years 
Upper Incisors 




Eleven Years 

Upper Incisors 



Fifteen Years 
Lower Incisors 



Passing to the permanent incisors in the upper jaw at nine years the 
central pair have almost completely lost their mark. At ten those 
adjoining these have reached the same condition, while at eleven the 
marks have about vanished from all of the permanent incisors. It 
will be noticed that as the age advances the appearance of the worn 
tables assumes a more triangular form. 



r,oi, 




Five Years 



Twenty One Years 



Comparison of a five-year-old mouth with one that is twenty 
years old, showing the marked contrast that develops, as age ad- 
vances, in the slope of the teeth as viewed from the side. To Gou- 
baux and Barrier's "Exterior of the Horse" the author is greatly 
indebted for the prints of horses' teeth which have been shown. 
These have been modified somewhat to bring- out more clearly the 
necessary distinctions. 




Nancy Hanks 2.04 and foal by Arion 2:07%. This foal shows the 
qualities desired in a trotting breed weanling, while the mare in form 
illustrates a very desirable type of standard bred brood mare. 



C>0c 




50d 



ESTIMATING THE AGE BY THEIR TEETH 51 

xary: Roaring, whistling, sidebone, ringbone, navicular 
disease, curb, bone spavin, bog spavin, thoroughpin, 
grease, shivering and cataract. 

84. The Mare Classes. In addition to the lighter head, 
neck and fore quarter which is the proper type of the 
sex, the mare should specially differ from the stallion in 
the roominess of the barrel. The ribs should be deeper 
and the body less compact and with much more length of 
loin than in the case of the stallion. 

85. Colts and Fillies. This is probably the hardest 
class for the judge to satisfy himself in rendering deci- 
sions. This class cannot be judged without considering 
the possibilities of the future which comes only from ex- 
perience. It is the growthy colt or filly with ideal limbs 
and rather lanky body that is likely to prove the superior 
animal when mature; while the compact, smooth bodied 
colt or filly that is not constructed on correct mechanical 
principles is likely to develop into a disappointment. 

V. ESTIMATING THE AGE OF HORSES BY THEIR TEETH. 

It is necessary to know the indications of age as they 
appear in the teeth that no animal may be unfairly classed 
with those that are younger. The indications become in 
a degree satisfactory to those who have proven them 
many times by personal observation and experience in 
noting the differences that exist. It is to be remembered, 
however, that the foods fed them have a marked influence 
on the wear of the teeth, thus making differences which 
are not solely due to age. Liberal feeding which favors 
early maturity is also likely to affect the appearance and 
arrival of the incisors. 

86. Appearance of Incisors. The difference in the ap- 
pearance of the milk teeth or temporary incisors and the 
permanent incisors is readily understood after they have 
been once inspected. The temporary incisors are slender, 
narrow and constricted at the neck and very white, while 
the permanent incisors are broader, thicker and usually 
of a light yellowish tinge. 



52 JUDGING HORSES 

87. Order of Appearance of Incisors. The permanent 
incisors of both the upper and the lower jaws appear at 
the same time so that it is only necessary to refer to the 
upper. There are six permanent incisors in each jaw in 
the full mouth and these make their appearance in pairs 
about as follows: The pair in the center are the first to 
appear and they have displaced the temporary pair and 
are full grown when the colt is from 2J/2 to 3 years old. 
The second pair or the two next to these are fully grown 
at 3 J/2 to 4 years and the third pair have displaced the 
two corner temporary incisors at 4J/2 to 5 years of age. 
At this time the horse usually has a full mouth. 

88. Disappearance of the Tables. The best indication 
of the age from five to ten years is the order of the disap- 
pearance of the tables or marks in the incisors. At five 
years the tables in the central pair of incisors of the lower 
jaw show some wear but it is not until the horse is about 
six years old that they have almost disappeared. At 
seven years of age the "swallow-tail" as it is called, or 
the nick in the upper corner incisor appears. At this age 
also, the two incisors next to the central pair lose almost 
all traces of their tables through wear, and at eight years 
the corner incisors or outside pair are so worn as to be 
almost free from any appearance of having tables. At 
nine years of age the tables have disappeared from the 
central pair of incisors in the upper jaw; at ten the 
marks in the next pair in the upper jaw are about worn 
out, and when eleven is reached the tables have almost 
disappeared from the corner pair of the upper row of in- 
cisors. Sometimes the teeth are "bishoped, " that is, 
marks are made in the teeth to represent tables thus mak- 
ing the horse appear to be younger by the tables of its 
teeth. This treatment may always be told from the un- 
natural appearance of the table as the normal tooth al- 
ways has a rim of enamel around the tables. 

After a horse passes beyond the age mentioned it is a 
difficult matter to make any further estimate with any de- 




An easy and satisfactory method of opening a horse's mouth. The 
two thumbs are inserted just back of the incisors and the lower is 
pressed down so that the horse drops the lower jaw. It is usually easy 
in this way to make observations regarding the teeth. 




52a 



Proper method of lifting and holding the foot of a horse. In seeking 
to lift the front foot of a horse the hand should be run over the cannon 
in the manner indicated in one of the photographs. Usually a horse 
will lift his foot as soon as this is done. To hold it firmly without 
much effort, the proper plan is to hold the toe with the foot doubled 
against the elbow as shown in the above photograph. 




A fully developed bog spavin is shown on the left leg in the right 
hand illustration, while the one in the left illustration shows a large 
ringbone at the base of the pastern. 




A clean, clearly defined hock appears in the photo on the right shown 
from the point of view most likely to discover bone spavin. The photo 
to the left shows this, as a spavin may be clearly seen at the inner 
base of the right hock. 



52b 




Photo by G. A. Tadman. 
The illustration to the right shows a cocked ankle, while the other 
one is a photograph of a large sidebone which may be seen on the out- 
side of the right leg at the junction of the pastern and foot. 




Prize winning Mammoth jack, Jumboak, owned by W. R. Goodwin, 
Jr., Oakhurst Stock Farm, Napersville, Illinois. In size of bone and 
general form this jack shows the characteristics which are most sought 
in this breed. First prize at Illinois State Fair, 1900 ; height, 15.3 ; 
weight, 1,100 lbs. at three years old. Sold for $1,000. 



52c 




The Harvester ; champion trotting stallion of the world. Record 
2.01. Bred at Walnut Hall Farm, Kentucky. Owned by C. K. G. 
Billings, New York. 




Minor Heir; 1.58% champion pacing stallion under present ruling 
conditions. Owned by International Stock Food Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 



52d 



EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS 53 

gree of certainty. As the age increases, however, the up- 
per surface of the incisors appear more triangular and 
the teeth spring from the jaw with a greater slope. 

VI. EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS. 

89. A Blemish Different from Unsoundness. A blemish 
is something that depreciates the value of a horse without 
interfering with its usefulness. Such injuries as wire 
cuts mar the appearance of a horse and are properly call- 
ed blemishes, while unsoundness include spavins, curbs, 
ringbones and all other diseases that lessen the usefulness 
of a horse in its sphere. 

90. Decayed and Worn Teeth. In examining a horse 
for unsoundness it is well to follow a regular order be- 
ginning with the teeth. The best indication of decayed 
teeth or any similar unsoundness of the mouth is the odor 
that comes from it or attaches itself to the hand on the 
introduction of the latter. If the outer edges of the in- 
cisors are broken and worn away, it is an indication that 
the horse is addicted to "cribbing" in the stable. 

91. Discharges from the Nostrils. The nostrils should 
be of a fresh pink color, somewhat moist, but there should 
be no discharge from them. If there is, glanders or dis- 
temper may be suspected, which should lead to a trial of 
the mallein test if there is any suspicion of the former. 

92. Impaired Vision. In regard to the eye there are 
many defects of vision which can hardly be termed un- 
soundnesses, yet they should be carefully looked for. A 
horse by its action will usually indicate if the eyesight is 
gOod. Stepping inordinately high or an inclination to 
shy readily indicate defective vision. By moving the 
hand gently in front of the eye, blindness may generally 
"be discovered if the eye is so affected. The hand should 
be moved slowly for if the motion is made quickly the 
influence of the air on the eye will induce the horse to 
shut it though it may not have seen the motion of the 
nand. 



54 JUDGING HORSES 

93. Defective Hearing. Defects of hearing are more 
common than is ordinarily supposed and they can usually 
be foretold by the action of the ears. Rigid ears indicate 
that the hearing has been lost. On the other hand when 
the ears are used excessively there is reason to suspect 
that the eyesight is not as perfect as it should be and on 
that account the horse is trying to make its ears assist its 
eyes by following closely every sound. 

94. Sweenied Shoulders. Passing to the shoulder it 
should be closely observed for the presence of sweeny. 
This is a shrinkage or atrophy of the muscles of this re- 
gion leaving the shoulder appear flat and the blade bare 
of muscle. 

95. Capped Elbows. On the point of the elbow, shoe 
boils or chapped elbows may be frequently seen. The 
point of the elbow is unduly enlarged by the accumula- 
tion of matter. It is a blemish as it is unsightly though 
not interfering with the horse at work. 

96. Splints. Continuing down the fore leg, splints 
should be looked for on the cannon. They may be found 
on almost any part of this region but some care is neces- 
sary not to mistake the ends of the two small bones, that 
are associated with the cannon, for splints. In some 
horses the ends of these bones are surmounted with no- 
ticeable knobs. If these lumps are found on both legs 
in exactly the same place, it may be taken for granted 
that they are natural. When the splint is located at the 
back of the leg near the tendon or close to the knee joint, 
so as to interfere w T ith the action, it is in the worst place 
that it is possible to have it. A small splint in a position 
on the leg where it is not likely to cause lameness is not 
considered by most judges to be more than a blemish. 
The fact that splints on young horses very frequently 
disappear in a draft horse in a year or two is sufficient 
reason for overlooking this defect when it is present in 
young animals. 



EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS 55 

97. Ringbones. These are generally located on the 
pastern. There are two forms of it, called high and low 
ringbone, depending on the location. Ordinarily it is situ- 
ated at the hoof head where the foot joins the pastern and 
it may be on an}^ one of the fonr feet. Usually it can be 
seen because of the prominence produced but the hand 
should be passed over the part that a small form of it 
may not escape detection. 

98. Sidebones. By pressing the thumb and the fore 
finger around the hind quarter of the front foot this dis- 
ease may be easily detected. It is common to the front 
feet only. Small, hard prominences may be found on the 
side of the pastern just above the foot in horses that have 
them. They were originally cartilage but become ossified 
and solid, causing pain and considerable lameness espe- 
cially when the horse having them is driven on hard 
roads. 

99. Quarter Cracks and Sand Cracks. The feet are 
subject to many forms of unsoundness and among the 
most prevalent are sand cracks and quarter cracks. In 
very sandy districts during the hot days of summer when 
horses are driven considerable the hoof becomes so heated 
that it cracks and in time results in a very troublesome 
disorder. Usually this defect originates from weak feet. 
Quarter cracks are very similar to sand cracks excepting 
that they are seen on the quarters of the hoof. They ex- 
tend from the coronary band or the hoof head to about 
the middle of the hoof in cases of ordinary severity. 
Looking at the bottom of the foot there should be no 
cracks running from the bars to the top of the hoof. 
Large cracks here are very common owing to the general 
practice of cutting out the heels in shoeing. 

100. Corns. These are generally located in the cor- 
ner of the heels and their presence may be more or less 
indicated by the way a horse will shrink when the sole of 
the foot is hit in that region with the handle of a knife. 



56 JUDGING HORSES 

101. Thrush and Scratches. Thrush is a diseased con- 
dition of the foot in the region of the frog and invariably 
makes its presence known by the disagreeable odor that 
comes from it. Scratches occur in the back part of the 
pastern, and, while not properly an unsoundness, they 
cause the animal affected a great deal of pain and annoy- 
ance. It is a condition due to the filthiness of this part 
and will generally disappear before cleanliness and anti- 
septic lotions. 

102. Locating Lameness. In locating lameness in the 
leg, it should be borne in mind that it is the sound limb 
that the horse puts down with the most confidence and 
when the ailing leg comes to the ground an effort to ease 
it is made by throwing the head up. When a horse shows 
lameness in the front legs, if the trouble is in the shoulder 
the leg will usually be flexed at the knee when standing 
at ease ; but when the sprain or lameness is below the 
knee the affected limb will be extended. When sore on 
both front feet they will be extended as far as con- 
venient. 

103. Thoroughpin, In detecting diseases in the region 
of the hock or in fact in any other part, it is absolutely 
necessary to first know the outlines of the perfect struc- 
ture. This has special application to the diseases of this 
region; for there are many that may show but a very 
slight variation from the normal condition and thorough- 
pin is one of these. Thoroughpin is located between the 
tendon of the hind leg and the bone and appears just 
above the hock. It consists of a soft swelling that may 
be pushed from side to side. 

104. Curb. Curb, which occurs just below the hock 
and to the rear, is a thickening of the ligaments in that 
region. By looking at the leg from the side it may be 
easily noticed as it is a variation from the straight line 
which should run from the point of the hock down to- 
wards the end of the cannon. 



EXAMINATION FOE UNSOUNDNESS 57 

105. Bone Spavin. The most common trouble of the 
hocks, and the worst of all, is bone spavin. To detect 
this, it is best to stand in front of the horse and take a 
position so that in looking back the inner outline of the 
hind leg may be seen very clearly. This is a bone deposit 
which nature has thrown out to strengthen an otherwise 
weak joint and when it has developed it ties the joint so 
that it interferes with the proper action of the horse. The 
hind leg instead of coming down on the heel as it should 
in a sound limb, is thrown forward so that the toe reaches 
the ground first and the stride is unnaturally shortened, 
and lameness frequently results. Occult spavin, that is 
where the deposit is not apparent to the eye but hidden 
in the joints, is very hard to determine; the usual method 
of detection is to lift the suspected leg and then, starting 
the horse quickly, observe the result when the foot 
reaches the ground. Undue shrinkage indicates the pres- 
ence of spavin in this form. 

106. Bog Spavin. Bog spavin is usually associated 
with thoroughpin and it is very similar to the latter ; dif- 
fering from it only in location. In the natural depres- 
sion that occurs on the inner and front part of the hock, 
the oil from the joint accumulates and forms a soft 
swelling commonly known as bog spavin. The term blood 
spavin is sometimes applied to the enlargement of the 
vein that passes across the hock from in front. This, 
however, is not an unsoundness. 

107. Unsound in Wind. After giving all the parts 
careful inspection for soundness, the horse should be 
driven rapidly for a quarter of a mile so as to discover 
wind troubles. The horse should be stopped quickly and 
then by advancing closely to the neck the breathing may 
be noted whether free and easy or accompanied with a 
sound similar to whistling. If the breathing is charac- 
terized by a wheezing or whistling sound, then whistling, 
roaring or some other disorder of the air passages is 
present. If the origin of the sound is doubtful — it might 



58 JUDGING HORSES 

be possible to result from too tight a collar — have the 
horse taken out of the harness and ridden rapidly. When 
the breathing is not regular it is likely that the horse is 
troubled with the heaves. In the instance of horses so 
afflicted, the breathing is more or less spasmodic, the air 
from the lungs seeming to be half expelled when the res- 
piration stops for a brief period and then the expulsion 
of the air is continued. In this way the depression of 
the flanks is not gradual and continuous as it is in the 
instance of the horse with sound lungs but it is stayed 
for a short period at a time when the breath is about half 
expelled from the lungs. 

108. Detection of Stable Vices. Horses may ha^e 
many stable vices that detract greatly from their utility, 
but these cannot be discovered as a rule in the show ring. 
To make a satisfactory examination of a horse, it is nec- 
essary to see it in the stable, then have it harnessed, 
hitched, driven and subjected to a critical examination, 
and after these things have been given careful considera- 
tion it will be only after continuous companionship on 
the road that a man may be said to truly know his horse. 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS FOR HORSES 59 



VII. OFFICIAL STANDARDS FOR HORSES. 

THE TROTTING STANDARD ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN 

TROTTING REGISTER ASSOCIATION. 

When an animal meets these requirements and is duly 
registered it shall be accepted as a standard bred trotter: 

1. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse and 
a registered standard trotting mare. 

2. A stallion sired by a registered standard trotting horse 
provided his dam and grand dam were sired by registered 
standard trotting horses, and he himself has a record of 2:30 
a'nd is the sire of three trotters with records of 2:30 from 
different mares. 

3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard trotting 
horse, and whose dam and grand dam were sired by registered 
standard trotting horses, provided she herself has a trotting re- 
cord of 2:30 or is the dam of one trotter with a record of 2:30. 

4. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, 
provided she is the dam of two trotters with records of 2:30. 

5. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, 
proivded her first, second and third dams are each sired by a 
registered standard trotting horse. 

THE PACING STANDARD. 

When an animal meets these requirements and is duly 
registered, it shall be accepted as a standard bred pacer: 

1. The progeny of a registered standard pacing horse and 
a registered standard pacing mare. 

2. A stallion sired by a registered standard pacing horse, 
provided his dam and grand dam were sired by registered 
standard pacing horses, and he himself has a pacing record of 
2:25, and is the sire of three pacers with records of 2:25, from 
different mares. 

3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard pacing horse 
and whose dam and grand dam were sired by registered stand- 
ard pacing horses, provided she herself has a pacing record 
of 2:25, or is the dam of one pacer with a record of 2:25. 

4. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, 
provided she is the dam of two pacers with records of 2:25. 

5. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, 
provided her first, second and third dams are each sired by 
a registered standard pacing horse. 

6. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse out 
of a registered standard pacing mare, or a registered standard 
pacing horse out of a registered standard trotting mare. 



60 JUDGING HOUSES 

SCALE OF POINTS FOR SHETLAND PONY ADOPTED BY 

AMERICAN SHETLAND PONY CLUB. 

Constitution — Constitution indicated by general healthy- 
appearance, perfect respiration, brightness of eyes. . . 10 

Size — Ponies over four years old, 42 inches and under in 
height, two points to be deducted for every inch over 42 
up to 46 inches, fractional portions to count as full 
inches 25 

Head — Head symmetrical, rather small and fine, wide be- 
tween eyes, ears short and erect 10 

Body — Barrel well rounded, back short and level, deep 

chested, good breast, compact, "pony build" 10 

Legs — Legs muscular, flat boned, hind legs not cow^hocked 

or too crooked 25 

Mane and Tail — Foretop, mane and tail heavy 10 

Feet — Good 10 

100 

Note. In judging horses the height is sometimes a subject 
of discussion so that the manner of determining this should 
be well understood.lt is generally conceded that the horse 
should stand on a perfectly level floor and the measurement 
made to the highest point of the withers. The position of the 
horse should be such that the head at the poll should be in 
line with the withers and this parallel to the floor. The fore 
legs and hind legs should be as perpendicular to the floor and as 
parallel to each other as the conformation of the horse per- 
mits. It should be noted that the spirit level in the cross bar 
of the standard should indicate that it is being held properly. 
The horse should be measured in shoes of the same thickness 
as he wears when in competition in the show ring. 



JUDGING CATTLE. 



CHAPTER II. 

JUDGING CATTLE. 

109. Method of Examination. In judging cattle in the 
show ring the most satisfactory plan is to make a very 
careful scrutiny of the animal as it stands before you; 
then approaching it from the front, notice the head and 
neck before placing the hands upon the shoulder to re- 
view the various parts of the body. 

I. JUDGING BEEF CATTLE. 

110. Method of Handling. In judging beef cattle it is 
of much importance to see that they stand properly and 
are not held so as to hide any natural defects which other- 
wise would be easily seen. They should stand on a surface 
as level as possible with the legs naturally placed under 
them, with the head held straight forward. By variations 
from this it is quite possible to hide from the examiner as 
he makes his first inspection many of the natural defects. 
It becomes very easy to vastly improve the handling quali- 
ties of an animal by turning the head towards the judge 
or to make the top or lower lines more level by choosing 
an advantageous position. In moving towards the animal 
from in front, note the characteristics of the head and neck 
quickly and then placing the hand upon the shoulder and 
using the tips of the fingers feel the compactness of the 
shoulder, its covering and the smoothness with which it 
fits to the body. From this point it is usual to pass to the 
back, handling this region very carefully as the back rib 



64 JUDGING CATTLE 

and loin is the most valuable part in the butcher's point of 
view. After handling the back carefully, the covering of 
the ribs should also be observed very closely. It is con- 
sidered a good method for determining the quality of the 
flesh to gently push the ends of the fingers between the ribs. 
If there is no natural flesh or muscle there, the ends of the 
fingers are easily inserted in this region but if the covering 
is of the best quality and it is mostly muscle the ends 
of the fingers cannot be inserted very far between the ribs. 
To estimate the character of the skin and the mellowness 
of the flesh, the skin is generally lifted between the first 
finger and the thumb and its quality carefully noted. Then 
with the fingers flat gentle pressure against the rib reveals 
the mellowness or firmness of the flesh. The thickness of 
the loin is an exceedingly important point and one of the 
ways of determining this is to push the back of the hand in 
at the lower level of the loin and then note the distance 
from the top of the loin to the back of the hand. Leaving 
this point the fullness and characteristics of the hind 
quarter are observed, then the fullness of the flank and the 
cod, which make the criticism of the one side of the animal 
complete. Standing squarely behind it, the development 
of the hind quarter is noted after which it is only necessary 
to pass down the other side very similar to that which has 
been followed on the right side. 

The steer may be considered from two points of view. 
The first has to do with the qualities of the store steer or 
feeder to be fattened, while the other refers to the merits 
of the prime steer that is ready for the butcher. 

111. Store Steers. It is a common practice in some 
communities for the stockmen to buy young steers with 
the object of feeding them for market. The steers are 
generally procured in the early fall, fed through most of 
the winter months* and put on the market in the spring 
or early summer. The most forcible factors in determin- 
ing the profits from this work is the skill of the purchaser 
in selecting animals that will make good feeders and 




Pure bred Angus Steer, Glencarnock Victor 2nd. Grand champion at 
International Live Stock Exposition, Chicago, 1913. 




Shortho.n Calf Herd. Undefeated in the 1913 shows. Owned by 
Lespedezae Farm, Hickory Valley, Tenn. 



64a 





.a^ai 



Photo by Hills. 
Shorthorn steer Britisher, illustrating desirable type for a feeding 
steer as shown in a short face, large muzzle, wide forehead, short neck, 
deep chest, straight, wide back, deep ribs and smooth, long hind quar- 
ters. 




The type and other qualities usually indicative of an undesirable 
feeding steer showing thin, long neck, sharp withers, shallow chest, 
narrow back, thin loin, light quarters, long legs and the characteristic 
expression of the steer that eats most and makes least progress in 
the feed lot. 



64b 



JUDGING BEEF CATTLL 65 

then buying them at a proper price. The skill lies gener- 
ally in being able to estimate the possibilities of improve- 
ment in the animals selected ; and to do this with any de- 
gree of certainty, calls for a practical knowledge of the 
conduct of animals in the feed lot where the reasons for 
the points are unfolded and tested. 

112. Form of the Feeder. The best feeding steers are 
comparatively wide, round and deep ribbed. The steer 
that stands high from the ground, light in the flanks and 
shallow in the heart girth rarely makes a good feeder. 
In type the form of the store steer should fill out a paral- 
lelogram, the lines being true in every direction. 

It should be broad and deep in front and this should be 
characteristic of the hindmost parts as well. As much 
width as possible is desirable if it is not accompanied with 
roughness over the shoulder or the hips or hooks. It is 
not expected, however, that a store steer should be as 
level and smooth in form as the finished animal ready for 
the block. Stoutness of form with depth of body are 
usually the characteristics of vigorous feeders, which may 
be accounted for by the supposition that in the stout in- 
dividual the blood currents have less distance to travel 
and consequently the circulation is more active. 

113. Quality. The possession of quality does not seem 
to have much influence on the feeding ability of the steer 
though it has a marked effect on the value of the steer 
after being fattened. Animals of quality usually fatten 
more quickly than those that are rough and coarse, though 
if the latter are exceptionally vigorous, which is generally 
the case, they will sometimes make greater gains than 
those having quality because of delicacy. Quality in the 
steer means fine bone, soft, mellow hide and silky hair; 
while such attributes as a very rough, heavy frame, coarse 
joints, prominent, ragged hips and rough, open shoulders 



66 JUDGING CATTLE 

are the most pronounced evidences of deficiency in this 
feature. 

114. Inferences from Good Handling. The handling 
of a feeder or the condition of the hide is one of the most 
valuable indications that may be observed. If the skin is 
mellow and elastic, it possesses what is called good han- 
dling. Such a skin is invariably associated with rapid fat- 
tening qualities, while a heavy, stiff hide is considered to 
indicate slower fattening. The previous management 
which the steers have had has a marked influence on the 
handling. When liberally fed and they are thrifty, the 
skin has the softness and elasticity that usually accom- 
panies a condition which has had been termed by stock- 
men as "sappy." On the other hand if scrimped in their 
feed or if it has been dry without anything of a succulent 
nature as a part of the ration, the skin becomes tightly 
attached to the frame and it feels dry and paper like. In 
animals that possess good handling, when the hand is 
placed on the body just back of the shoulder and pressed 
against it, there is a soft elastic feel to the touch which is 
only found in animals having a thick coat of hair of fine 
quality, mellow skin and firm flesh. This feature of good 
handling cannot be magnified too much in judging all 
classes of beef stock, for it not only reflects the thriftiness 
of the animal at the time but also foretells its future 
progress. 

115. Features of the Head. The features and propor- 
tions of the head are usually a condensed reflection of the 
rest of the form. A broad, short head is invariably ac- 
companied with a thick, wide, low set body and the long, 
slim face is generally associated with the greater length 
of body and more narrowness. There is a co-relation of 
parts here as elsewhere that is seldom at fault and no 
other part offers such a field of study in this regard as 
that of the head. The mouth and the lips should be large, 
making the juncture of the muzzle and the face appear 
to be somewhat concave. From the muzzle to the eyes the 




Reprinted from Illinois Bulletin 147. 
CHICAGO WHOLESALE DEALER'S METHOD OF CUTTING BEEF. 



1 and 12. Shanks. Weight is 
per pound, 7% cents. 

2. Round. Weight is 14 per cent of carcass, 
pound, 14% cents. 

3. Rump. Weight is 6 per cent of carcass, 
pound, 14% cents. 

4 and 5. Loin end > Weight is 17 per cent of carcass. Wholesale 

6. Pinbone Loin. J value per pound, 20 cents. 

7. Ribs. Weight is 9 per cent of carcass. Wholesale value per pound, 
16% cents. 

8. Chuck. Weight is 22 per cent of carcass, 
pound, 12 cents. 

9. Flank. Weight is 4 per cent of carcass, 
pound, 7 cents. 

10-11. Plates. Weight is 16 per cent of carcass. 

pound, 8% cents. 

Suet. Weight is 4 per cent of carcass. 

A good 1,200-lb. steer dresses about 800 pounds and of this 708 pounds 

is marketable meat. The high priced cuts are taken from the ribs, loins 

and hind-quarters, and the best cuts come principally from the ribs and 

loins. A calculation from the figures given above shows that while the 

ribs and loins make up only 26 per cent of the weight of the carcass, 

they yield 40 per cent of the value. 



per cent of carcass. Wholesale value 
Wholesale value per 
Wholesale value per 



Wholesale value per 
Wholesale value per 
Wholesale value per 




Shorthorn bull, Ringmaster. Champion of the breed at leading 
shows in 1911. Shown by White and Smith, St. Cloud, Minn. Photo 
taken at three years of age. 

DESCRIPTION OF SHORTHORN CATTLE. 

THE SHORTHORN in the course of its development has been mainly repre- 
sented by three family types — the Bates, noted for style, fine heads, clean 
necks, straight, level backs, refined bone, with a combination of milking 
and beefing qualities ; the Booths, famous for excellence in girth, wide backs, 
lengthy quarters, deep flesh and beefing attributes ; the Cruickshanks, or 
Scotch cattle, possessed of scale, with low, broad, deep forms, heavy flesh, 
mossy coats and early maturity. With this as the source of their evolution, 
the modern shorthorn should reflect in the show ring a blending of the fore- 
going family types in possessing beef form, early maturity and all the gen- 
eral evidences of thrift and vigor. In the show ring the type that is recog- 
nized is that of a beef animal combining the butcher's ideas, the feeder's 
requirements and the breeder's demands. This means a representative that 
possesses a high percentage of valuable meat of the quality that is desired 
for the block. With this there should be the general evidences of productive 
capacity in the making of beef, which means a full development of the vital 
organs and the other regions which have to do with the powers of production. 
In unison with the breeding, and held in equal estimation, there should be 
the finish, style and other characteristics which the breeder seeks in the 
breeding herd required chiefly for the production of beef. The common 
colors are red, white and roan, and these as well as all families should not 
be subject to the personal preferences of the judge or to present popularity. 



fiflb 



JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 67 

aspect of the face should appear triangular with the base 
at the muzzle and the top at the line running between the 
eyes. The openings of the nostrils should be very promi- 
nent indicating that there is an abundance of lung ca- 
pacity. The lower jaw should appear strong and well 
clothed with muscle. The eyes should be large, somewhat 
prominent yet placid, indicating a quiet, generous tem- 
perament. Quietness and laziness are attributes of the 
temperament favorable to the process of fattening and we 
know that animals of lymphatic temperament have both 
these characteristics. The head should not be long be- 
tween the eye and the horn and the poll should be some- 
what prominent and topped with a mass of wavy hair. A 
fine texture is desired in the horn and it should be some- 
what flat in shape and in no sense coarse. The ear should 
be neatly attached to the head, pointed and covered inside 
and on the edge with a profuse growth of fine, silky hair. 

116. Neck — Short, Full. The neck should be short, in 
fact many well bred steers appear as if they had none. 
The top line from the base of the poll should run back 
straight and almost level with the top of the shoulder. 
The blade of the latter should fit closely to the body with 
a nice slope so that the animal may have a gay carriage. 
In steers that are very coarse in the shoulder with the 
blade standing out from the body, this part is apt to show 
bare of flesh giving also a marked appearance of shrinkage 
in the girth just behind the blade. 

117. Chest — Wide, Deep, Full. In this region the steer 
should appear fully developed with the brisket light but 
yet far enough advanced to fill out the squareness of the 
frame to the proper degree. It will be found frequently 
that the narrow chested animal is a poor feeder, which 
makes but little progress in proportion to the feed that it 
eats. In addition to the chest being wide it should also 
be deep. The bottom of it should come down well between 
the fore legs with no shrinkage behind these as may be 
noticed frequently in animals that are deficient in con- 



68 JUDGING CATTLE 

stitution. Such animals do not have the capacity to make 
feed into flesh and fat economically as they are deficient 
in vital force or constitution. 

118. Ribs — Long, Hooped. These should be long and 
hooped so as to give an abundance of room to the vital 
organs, the lungs and the heart, and also provide a place 
for the storage of food in large quantities. A large, deep 
chest and a capacious stomach are good indications that 
an animal has the capacity to utilize large quantities of 
food and make rapid progress in fattening. The hind ribs 
should be comparatively long bringing the plates and the 
flanks on almost a level with the bottom of the fore part 
of the body. The loin should be wide leaving the ribs on 
a level and joining the hind quarters with little departure 
from a straight line. 

119. Hips— Smooth; Long Hind Quarters. While width 
is desirable at the hips yet smoothness should not be sacri- 
ficed to secure this. "When the hips are too wide apart they 
are likely to be prominent and appear coarse. It would be 
impossible to finish such an animal without the hind 
quarters appearing- rdugh and very deficient in covering. 
The hind quarters should be long and carry out the 
squareness of form which should be characteristic of the 
fore quarters of the ideal feeding steer. 

120. Judging Fat Steers. In judging the finished or 
fattened steer, the view must be largely that of the 
butcher. The butcher invariably prefers animals that are 
small in frame ; the low set, thick sort that yield heavily in 
the most profitable parts. The finished steer should also be 
of fine quality so that the quantity of offal may be small, 
as this has much to do with the profitableness of the car- 
cass from the standpoint of the butcher. In coarse steers 
fully one-half of their live weight is made up of what is 
largely waste to the butcher. If the bone is fine, the skin 
and hair of good quality, there is much less waste than if 
they were coarse. 




Hereford Bull Gay Lad 6th. Champion of the breed at the leading 
shows of 1911. Owned by O. Harris & Sons, Harris, Mo. Photo 
taken at two years of age. 

DESCRIPTION OF HEREFORD CATTLE. 



THIS BREED, which derives its name from its native district in England, 
is most popular in color and markings when showing a dark claret or 
cherry with white face, throat, chest, legs, belly, twist, and small stripe of 
white on neck and before shoulder. The type represented by this breed is 
that suitable for the largest production of beef, as it is low set and broad, 
heavy in fore quarters, full deep chest ; level, wide back ; wide, thick loin 
and full quarters. In those representing the best of the breed the covering 
of flesh is usually thick while the coat possesses a thickness and mossiness 
which is very conducive to the general thrift. The form ' represents that 
which is invariably associated with a strong constitution, vigor and pre- 
potency, and these qualities are sometimes so strongly in evidence as to give 
rise to undue coarseness and roughness which should necessarily be dis- 
couraged in the show ring. Two of the cardinal qualities of the breed are 
early maturity and grazing attributes, and as these have their origin in 
natural vigor and activity those qualities of form and general appearance 
which contribute to these should have prominence in rendering decisions. 
See official scale of points on page 93. 




Aberdeen Angus bull, Prince Ito, the property of Stanley R. Pierce, 
Creston, Illinois. Champion of the breed, Royal Agricultural Society 
Show. 



DESCRIPTION OF ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE. 

HPHE characteristic color of this breed of Scotch cattle is black without 
*■ any white beyond the udder or above the under line. The type of the 
breed is favorable to the production of the highest quality of meat in the 
greatest quantity. Smoothness is a leading feature, this being encouraged 
by the type which is noted for the rotundity of form with symmetry and 
quality, and it should be noticeable in the show animal by the evenness with 
which the flesh covers the carcass over all regions. The head is hornless 
without any appearance of scurs, and it should be surmounted by a sharp 
poll ; neck free from loose skin with a strong shoulder vein ; shoulder oblique, 
fitting close to the body and not rough at the top ; ribs deep, circular ; hips 
moderately far apart, smoothly covered ; rump, long, level, smooth ; thighs 
muscular, twist low and full ; quarters low, full and rounded. The general 
form is cylindrical, covered with even depth of mellow flesh and hide that is 
pliable yet not thin, and coated with fine, black hair. See official scale of 
points, page 91. 




Galloway heifer, Lutie Lake 2nd, 22759 ; Junior champion female 
of her breed at the International Live Stock Exposition in 1904. 
Bred and shown by O. H. Swigart, Champaign, 111. 



DESCRIPTION OP GALLOWAY CATTLE. 

'T^HIS BREED, deriving its name from its native district in Scotland, is 
■*• black in color, with no white admissible except on the udder or below the 
lmder line. The type represents a form that is thick, close to the ground 
and symmetrical, with long, wavy and thick coat of hair. As hardiness and 
strength of constitution are leading features, there should be every indication 
of general thrift and ruggedness in a representative of the breed. 

The scale of points adopted by the Council of the Galloway Cattle Breed- 
ers Association of Great Britain in 1883 gives the features of the breed in 
detail as follows : 

Color — Black, with a brownish tinge. 

Head — Short and wide, with broad forehead and wide nostrils ; without 
the slightest symptoms of horns or scurs. 

Eyes — Large and prominent. 

Ears — Moderate in length and broad, pointing forward and upward ; fringe 
of long hairs. 

Neck — Moderate in length, clean and filling well into the shoulders, the 
top in a line with the back in a female, and in a male naturally rising with 
age. 

Body — Deep, rounded and symmetrical. 

Shoulders — Fine and straight, moderately wide above ; coarse shoulder 
points and sharp or high shoulders are objectionable. 

Breast — Full and deep. 

Back and Rump — Straight. 

Ribs — Deep and well sprung. 

Loin and Sirloin — Well filled. 

Hook Bones — Not prominent. 

Hind Quarters — Long, moderately wide and well filled. 

Plank— Deep and full. 

Thighs — Broad, straight and well let down to hock ; rounded buttocks are 
very objectionable. 

Legs — Short and clean, with fine bone. 

Tail — Well set on and moderately thick. 

Skin — Mellow and moderately thick. 

Hair — Soft and wavy, with a mossy undercoat; wiry and curly hair is 
very objectionable. 



68c 




Red Polled Cow, Casy 2nd. Champion cow of the breed at the Inter- 
national Live Stock Exposition, Chicago, 1913. 



DESCRIPTION OF RED POLLED CATTLE. 

THIS BREED which originated in Norfolk and Suffolk, England, "lave been 
polled and red in color and otherwise possessed the type characteristics 
which now identify them for a century past. The type of the breed should 
represent a high combination of beefing qualities with utility for dairy pur- 
poses. This means a form that carries a covering of flesh and is especially 
developed in those parts which produce the best quality of meat. The head 
should be clearly defined in its features, the face being clean cut, the eye 
full and large, the ear medium size and the poll sharp without any fullness 
at the sides where the horns are usually located. The throat should be free 
from looseness and while fine should run easily into a somewhat thick neck 
which swells smoothly over the shoulder. The chest should be both broad 
and deep and the body should consist of a back moderately broad and well 
covered and a rib that is deep and somewhat round; the loin should have 
width with smoothness due to flesh and the same should be characteristic of 
the hind quarter. Moderate meatiness is allowable in this region and in the 
cow the udder should be specially well developed, large and circular and the 
teats of good size and well placed. The udder should be the sponsor for the 
dairy qualities while the general form and the condition should be indicative 
of the beefing propensities. In the show ring the tendencies towards beef 
production find more favor than those consider- d conducive to dairy qualities. 
See official scale of points, page 102 



68d 



JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 69 

121. Handling — Indicates Condition and Quality of 
Meat. The handling quality of the prime steer has con- 
siderable value in the butcher's view. On this he relies 
for indications of the steer 's condition, and also the qual- 
ity of the meat. If the covering of flesh is evenly dis- 
tributed over the steer and it is springy and mellow to the 
touch, it is considered ready for the block. If in denting 
the side with the finger the dent lingers some time the 
condition is due to soft, flabby fat that brings but a small 
price at the butcher's stalls. This is quite common in fin- 
ishing steers to find them flabby in places, most commonly 
over the loin and about the root of the tail. This patchi- 
ness is due to the unevenness of the fat distribution and it 
is a very undesirable feature. 

122. Condition. A sure sign of the condition of a steer 
«ind its fitness for the block is fullness of the scrotum or 
cod. When a steer is ready for the butcher the scrotum 
will be soft and large. The condition of the flank is an- 
other sign of ripeness. This should be thick, full and 
pendant, and the lower lines of it should be nearly even 
with the bottom lines of the body. Another indication 
considered very reliable is the development of tongue fat 
or the fullness which appears at the root of the tongue. 

123. Relation of Parts. In the finished steer from the 
butcher's standpoint the head is of little value, it should 
be in harmony with the rest of the body and not too large, 
as that means waste. The neck should be short and thick. 
The sho alder vein or the junctiure of the neck and the 
shoulder should be full, giving both these parts a charac- 
teristic smoothness due to the base of the neck swelling 
nicely over the shoulder blade. The latter should be well 
covered and evenly packed on top. The brisket should 
not be too heavy, as this is very cheap meat, but only ad- 
vanced enough to contribute to the desired squareness of 



70 JUDGING CATTLE 

form. Just back of the shoulder there should be no slack- 
ness in the girth. The ribs should be well covered with 
springy, mellow, yet firm flesh. The loins should be broad 
and thick ; the reason for this is that there are more valu- 
able cuts in the broad, thick loin than in the thin, narrow 
one, and this region in addition has a high value in the 
view of the butcher. The hips should be smoothly covered 
and their breadth should be carried back uniformly. The 
hind quarters should be long, as this adds greatly to the 
value of the carcass. The flesh should extend far down 
the legs with the twist deep and plump. Viewed from the 
side the top line of the animal and the under line should 
be parallel or nearly so. 

124. Value of Outs. The value of the different parts 
may be said to be a point of first consideration with the 
butcher. Dividing the steer into parts according to the 
way the butcher cuts them, we find that the head is only 
worth about ten or fifteen cents altogether, while the neck 
only has a value of from three to seven cents per pound. 
Then the cut called the chuck, which runs from the top of 
the shoulder to the beginning of the forearm and above 
the brisket, is worth from five to ten cents per pound. The 
brisket as a whole only has a value of from four to eight 
cents while the fore leg from the point where it joins the 
body to the chuck, known as the clod, is worth about six 
cents. The crops, or as the butcher terms it, the ribs, 
which consist of that part just back of the shoulder, is 
worth seven cents in the poor steer against sixteen cents 
per pound in the best. The region just below the crops 
known as the fore flank or plates, has a value usually 
from four to eight cents per pound. Following this comes 
the loin and this varies from ten to twenty cents. The 
upper part of the hind quarter has a value of about ten 
cents per pound, while the lower part, ranges from ten 
to twelve cents per pound in the best steers. The neck, 
brisket and plates are the cheapest portions. In regard 
to ribs, the two end ribs go with the hind quarters, 



JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 71 

while the two second ribs in the fore quarters sell from 
ten cents upwards, as they are the best cuts in that 
part. The first two ribs in the front quarter have a 
ralue of ten to twelve cents per pound. The wing cut 
of the sirloin grows narrower as it runs down but it 
still affords a large and valuable cut in finished steers. 
Porterhouse steak and sirloin taken from the parts which 
run from the front of the hooks to the end of the wing cut 
(that is where the fore quarter is separated from the hind 
quarter) is worth from ten to twenty cents per pound, 
making this region the most valuable of the steer. The 
rump steak which comes from the lower part of the hind 
quarter including the thigh and twist, has only a value 
of ten to twelve cents per pound. When it is understood 
that the average percentage of pounds that a steer pos- 
sesses is usually sixty, it is easy to see that the butcher 
must pay close attention to the form which yields the 
smallest percentage of offal and returns the most valu- 
able cuts. From the foregoing we see that the animal 
from the butcher's point of view depends mostly on its 
quality and then on its form, and in regard to the latter 
we find that the value of the animal grows greater as we 
pass from the fore quarters towards the hinder parts. It 
is important to know that the feeder's ideal does not 
differ markedly from the best for the butcher, except 
that the latter has been matured and fattened. 



72 JUDGING CATTLE 



SCALE OF POINTS FOR BEEF CATTLE — STEERS. 15 

GENERAL APPEARANCE: || 

Weight, score according to age 10 

Form, straight topline and underline; deep broad, low 
set, stylish 10 

Quality, firm handling, hair line; pliable skin; dense 
bone; evenly fleshed 10 

Condition, deep, even covering of firm flesh, especially 
in regions of valuable cuts 10 

HEAD AND NECK: 

Muzzle, broad; mouth large; jaw wide; nostrils large. 

Eyes, large, clear, placid 

Face, short, quiet expression 

Forehead, broad, full 

Ears, medium size, fine texture 

Horns, fine texture; oval, medium size 

Neck, thick, short; throat clean 

FORE QUARTERS: 

Shoulder Vein, full 2 

Shoulder, covered with flesh, compact on top, smooth. 2 

Brisket, advanced, breast wide <■ 1 

Dewlap, skin not too loose and drooping 1 

Legs, straight, short; arm full; shank fine, smooth. . . 2 

BODY: 

Chest, full, deep, wide; girth large; crops full 4 

Ribs, long, arched, thickly fleshed 8 

Back, broad, straight, smooth, even 10 

Loin, thick, broad 8 

Flank, full, even, with underline 2 

HIND QUARTERS: 

Hips, smoothly covered; distance apart in proportion 

with other parts ?• 

Rump, long, wide, even, tail head smooth, not patchy. 2 

Pin Bones, not prominent, far apart 1 

Thighs, full, deep, wide 2 

Twist, deep, plump 2 

Purse, full, indicating fleshiness 2 

Legs, straight, short, shank fine, smooth 2 

Total............... 10 ° 




Highland bull, Laoich 1260. The property of J. R. Campbell, Shin- 
ness, Scotland. A winner of numerous first and champion prizes at the 
Royal Agricultural Society Show of England and the Highland Agricul- 
tural Society Show of Scotland. The upper illustration shows this bull 
when champion of the breed at two years of age, while the lower one 
shows him again when in the same honored position at six years of age. 
A comparison of these photographs, both taken by Reid, is very instruc- 
tive as they clearly indicate the development which takes place as a 
bull approaches maturity. 

DESCRIPTION OF HIGHLAND CATTLE. 

r r , HIS BREED which comes from the highlands of Scotland is noted espe- 
-*■ cially for their robustness and the high quality of the meat which they 
produce. In type they exemplify the characteristics which we associate with 
constitution, being very deep and full chested, strong and rugged framed 
with a dense and long coat which protects them from the exposure to moun- 
tain conditions. The head is somewhat shaggy with bright, piercing eye and 
the horns strong and long. The neck is short the chest deep and full and 
the fore quarter shows unusual development especially in the region of the 
vital organs. The back is long and level and the quarter well covered and 
lengthy. The general form is massive and the general appearance of rugged- 
ness is added to by a thick shaggy coat of various shades of dun, black and 
sometimes brindle in color. 



72a 




Hertford bull, Sir Bred well 63685, by Corrector, Champion at the 
Trans-Mississippi Exposition, 1898. Bred by T. F. B. Sotham of Chilli- 
cothe, Mo. Purchased by Col. C. Slaughter, of Texas, for $5,000. 




Rear view of Sir Bred well 636 85, showing- the extent to which it is 
possible for a bull to be developed in the most valuable parts for meat 
production. Note the covering of the back, loin, fullness and depth of 
the hind quarters. 



72b 



JUDGING BEEF STOCK FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 73 

II. JUDGING BEEF STOCK FO.R BREEDING PURPOSES. 

In judging beef stock for breeding purposes, the 
breeder must have in view the demands of his own in- 
terests, and yet those of the feeder and butcher must 
also receive due consideration. For this reason the de- 
sirable qualities that are sought for in feeding stock, the 
features that make the animal valuable to the butcher 
and the attributes that the breeder knows to be of value, 
must all have proportionate consideration. Those of the 
feeder's and the butcher's type have been discussed, so 
that it is required to comment only on the peculiar fea- 
tures that are especially valuable from the breeder's point 
of view. There are two features of this kind that be- 
cause of their importance deserve special emphasis in 
the judging of breeding stock in the beef classes, and 
these are the possession of all the evidences of constitu- 
tion in combination with deep natural flesh. The breeder 
to appreciate his work must rely greatly on the constitu- 
tion of his animals, for it is this that guarantees thrift 
and vigorous reproduction. 

The other feature of special importance in beef stock 
is that of natural flesh. Natural flesh means the posses- 
sion of muscle or red meat with which an animal must 
be born to make a carcass for the butcher's block that is 
properly mixed in fat and lean. 

There is no feature of more value in the breeding of 
beef stock than that of having natural flesh characteristic 
of all animals in the herd, and there is likely no other 
quality which is transmitted with more certainty than 
this. 

125. Judging Beef Bulls. In form and condition those 
qualities which mark the feeder's and butcher's ideal 
should be strikingly shown in the beef sire. As already 
mentioned there are two features that require special 
emphasis, as they are especially valuable in the breeding 
herd of beef cattle and consequently should be possessed 
in a marked degree by the head of the herd. Reference 
is made to constitution and depth or wealth of natural 



74 JUDGING CATTLE 

flesh. A careful study of the work of those breeders who 
have made a name in the breeding of beef cattle will bear 
out the assertion that every one of them appreciated 
these two qualities. To illustrate this point we may use 
the most marked example in recent years, by referring to 
the work of two of the most successful breeders of beef 
cattle, Amos and Anthony Cruickshank, of Sittyton, Scot- 
land, as their work bears out the value of the two features 
that have been selectecl for more prominence than others. 
Two of the best sires that were used in their herd, Cham- 
pion of England and Roan Gauntlet, have been described 
by a recent writer (Prof. T. F. Jamieson, in the London 
Live Stock Journal) as possessing this quality in an inor- 
dinate degree, though they had other features of minor 
importance which, however, would cause some judges to 
overlook such animals in a show ring. Referring to the 
Champion of England, this writer states that his produce 
were better than those of any other bull used at Sittyton, 
asserting that ''they were large, growthy, healthy, thriv- 
ing beasts, with straight backs, deep ribs and good hair; 
heavy carcasses on short legs; often not so stylish and 
neat in their hind quarters, for they lacked that finish in 
their frames that would have brought them to the top in 
the Royal or Highland society's shows. A marked feature 
was their early development. No other bull's calves came 
out so strong as young animals. Champion himself was 
in color a roan, of good size but not extra large, stood on 
short legs, had a deep-ribbed, heavy carcass, a strong 
back, which so far from shrinking at all at the loins or 
middle rather tended to arch up there. He had a slight 
drop from the hooks to the rump which detracted from 
his appearance, but had good hind quarters, was heavy 
and full in his thighs, unusually good in his fore ribs 
and had a fi N s elastic skin with g ood hair. ' ' 




Councillor. Millionaire. Ingram's Style. 

Yearling Shorthorn bulls, first, second and third at R. A. S. E. Show, 
Birmingham. Ingram's Style exhibited by Mr. John Handley (first 
prize) ; Millionaire, exhibited by Messrs. G. and H. Bickford (second 
prize) ; Councillor, exhibited by H. M. the Queen, (third prize). 




Reproduced from Bibby's Quarterly. 
Three Hereford prize winners at Birmingham (England) Fat Stock 
Show, first, second and third in the same class. The left hand animal, 
Garnish, took first prize ; the middle one, Grace, third prize. The right 
hand animal took the second prize in the same class. First and third 
prize winners both the property of the Right Honorable the Earl of 
Coventry, president of the Royal Agricultural Society. The second prize 
winner is the property of G. H. Baker, Esq., The Hill, Bridgnorth. 



74a 




Aberdeen Angus cow Violet 3rd of Congash. A celebrated i, ,m 
imported and shown by J. D. McGregor, Brandon, Manitoba, Canada. 




The Hereford heifer Banza 316601, a prize winner in the two 3-ear 
old class in the shows of 1911. Shown by J. P. Cudahy. Kansas 
City, Mo. 



ni» 



JUDGING BEEF STOCK FOE EEEEDING PUEPOSES 75 

Commenting on Roan Gauntlet, this writer says : ' ' Roan 
Gauntlet was a lightish roan color, with a deep heavy 
carcass on shortish legs. For nize, quality, hair and sub- 
stance he was all right; he was well let down in his hind 
quarters and his ribs sprung out well from his back, 
but inclined to flatten lower down. He had a biggish 
head and his face was covered with very curly hair. The 
stock got by Roan Gauntlet were, like those of Champion 
of England, of good size and remarkable for their early 
development, natural depth of flesh and quality." These 
are the qualities that the breeder desires to have per- 
petuated in the produce of his herd, and they are also 
the qualities that the feeder desires and the butcher re- 
quires in the animals he buy; . In addition to them the 
beef sire should have the features of masculinity that 
attach themselves to cattle very strikingly apparent. The 
face should be broad, the head burly, the horns strong 
but not coarse, and the crest full and prominent. There 
should be a marked appearance of massiveness presented 
in the front view and the hind quarters should not in any 
sense be feminine ; that is, they should not have the short- 
ness and width and roughness that are usually associated 
with those of the other sex. 

126. Judging Beef Cows. In judging beef cows the 
preference should be given those that show constitution, 
wealth of natural flesh and feminine character. Constitu- 
tion in the female is of as much importance as it is in 
the sire, and its value cannot be overestimated in the 
breeding herd. The question of condition or flesh in this 
class constantly challenges the judgment of the judge, 
as it is very frequent that a good cow of excellent type 
and style competes in the show ring with an indifferent 
animal in high flesh. While this is an occurrence where 
every instance will most likely call for a different judg- 
ment, yet it may be said that the preference should be 



76 JUDGING CATTLE 

given to the good cow that is lacking in condition rather 
than the poorer individual that is highly pampered. In 
this connection it should be stated that cows are probably 
more apt to be rough and patchy, yet this is a feature 
that should always be condemned. Over the ribs there 
are apt to be creases, or around the tail the fat may be 
accumulated in bunches or the back may show patches, 
"ties" or unevenness of flesh. Though not often trans- 
mitted, yet this tendency to patchiness should be dis- 
countenanced, as it is an undesirable condition in all fat 
stock. 

127. Judging Young Beef Stock. In judging young 
beef stock the peculiar feature to which much importance 
should be attached is that of early maturity. Early ma- 
turity is a profitable characteristic to encourage in beef 
animals and for that reason should be given all possible 
prominence in the show ring. The young animals that 
show an early tendency to put on an even and somewhat 
firm and deep covering of flesh and at the same time show 
size, constitution and quality are the ones that should 
have the preference of the judge. 

III. JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE. 

To estimate the merits of dairy cows when giving milk 
there is no method so satisfactory as the actual records 
made with the Babcock test and the scales. Having the 
weight of milk yielded, the percentage of fat in it, dura- 
tion of the milking season and period of pregnancy to- 
gether with the amount of feed consumed, the merit of 
a cow for dairy purposes may be rated accurately. But 
even all these details will not completely express the 
meritorious qualities that it is possible for a dairy cow 
to possess ; for the breeder has in mind some other quali- 
ties that he desires, chief among which may be mentioned 
the ability of the cow to produce calves of the merit of 
herself and to continue doing this for a number of years. 
To attempt to encompass all the merits that any domes- 
ticated animal may possess and express this in a scale of 



j 







Polled Durham bull The Confessor. Champion at the international 
Live Stock Exposition in 1911. Owned by J. H. Miller and Son fa, 
Peru, Ind. The term 'Double Standard' is applied to such Polled 
Durhams as are eligible for registration in the American Shorthorn 
Herd Book as well as in the Polled Durham Record. 




Hereford Calves. Awarded grand champions for feeder cattle at the 
International Live Stock Exposition, Chicago, 1904. 



76a 




Hereford cow Princess 16th. Champion at the Iowa State Fair 
in 1911. Shown by O. Harris & Sons, Harris, Mo. 




Shorthorn bull calf, Scottish Champion, at 7 months. The highest 
priced calf of 1898. Bred by W. S. Marr, Uppermill, Scotland. Sold 
at auction for $1,650. 



76b 



JUDGING DAIEY CATTLE 77 

points is at best but a stimulus to the study of them, and 
it is only with this in mind that the various scales of 
points are submitted here in this work. That which fol- 
lows is used at the London and Canadian Dairy Show as 
a basis for making awards in two day tests: Twent}^ 
points for constitution and conformation, one point for 
each pound of milk, twenty points for each pound of fat, 
four points for each pound of solids not fat, one point for 
each ten days in milk, after the first twenty days (limit 
200 days) ; ten points is deducted from the total score for 
each per cent of fat below three per cent fat in the milk. 
While the judging of dairy cattle by points may not 
be completely satisfactory, it is a quick method for use 
in the show ring and it assists in the study of the many 
traits that are common to dairy cattle. Its value does 
not lie in the degree to which it assists in distinguishing 
the good cows from the bad ones but chiefly for the in- 
sight which it gives into the nature aud functions of the 
dairy animal, and it is the deeper knowledge of them 
that leads to better care, more intelligent feeding and 
more successful breeding, which all culminate in greater 
production. 

128. Dairy Cow's Function. To be able to draw cor- 
rect inferences from the points of the dairy cow, it is 
necessary to understand her function and how she per- 
forms it. The function of the dairy cow is to make milk, 
so that it is desirable to have a complete knowledge of 
how she does this and more especially the operation of 
the chief organs employed in the process. After studying 
this so as to see the work performed by each part, it is 
then realized that the type of the dairy cow is produced 
simply by the activity of these parts and it is in this 
way that it is possible to obtain a clear conception of 
the close relation of function or work, to type. 

129. Making of Milk. To understand how milk is 
made let us follow the course of the food after entering 
the cow's mouth. From there it passes into the gullei 



78 JUDGING CATTLE 

and then to the first stomach or paunch. After remaining 
there for a time, the most of it is returned to the mouth 
and remasticated ; when this is accomplished the food 
passes through the two other stomachs and finally lodges 
in the fourth. After undergoing a mixing process by the 
action of the muscles of the stomach, the food passes into 
the small intestines. Up to this time the chief action of 
the various parts has been to break up the food, so that 
the fluids of the body may act upon it, and make the 
digestible and nutritive portion into a solution. In its 
passage thus far the food has been subjected to the action 
of the saliva of the mouth and the gastric juice of the 
stomach, together with the bile of the liver and pancreatic 
juice which attack it in the small intestine. The result 
of this action is that the soluble nitrogenous material, 
carbohydrates and salts are now in a condition to be re- 
ceived by the blood and carried to the parts of the body 
that make the most abundant use of it. We see from this 
that the stomach and its aids have an important part to 
play in preparing the food, so that it may supply the cow 
the material to carry on her specialty, which is the making 
of milk. 

130. Function of the Blood. The food now being in 
a condition to be utilized by the animal economy, let us 
see how it passes into the blood and finally reaches that 
other great manufacturing center of the body of the dairy 
cow, the udder. It is the blood that is the medium for 
carrying the nutritive portions of the food to the organs 
needing them. The mucous membrane or inner lining of 
the small intestines is covered with a large number of 
small glands that have the appearance of the pile on 
velvet. These villi consist of cells and numerous small 
branches of veins called capillaries, and they also have 
what are known as lacteals. All the constituents, ex- 
cepting the fat, pass through the wall of the small capil- 
laries and these connect with the portal vein, which car- 
ries the blood to the liver and thence to the right side of 
the heart. The emulsified fat of the food reaches the 



JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 79 

same destination by a slightly different course. It passes 
into the lacteals that are contained in the villi mentioned 
and these join a long tube that runs beneath the spine and 
finally reaches the thoracic duct, which also receives all 
the fluid coming from the other lymphatics in the cow. 
The thoracic duct empties its contents about the region of 
the first rib into a great vein (the anterior vena cava) 
which opens into the right side of the heart, so all the 
digestible constituents of the food are now in the blood 
and have reached the right side of the heart. From here 
the blood goes to the lungs to be purified by the air that 
is breathed in and then it again goes back to the left side 
of the heart to be pumped through the arteries to the 
various portions of the body. Several branches run to 
the various organs of the body but that which goes to the 
mammary gland is of chief interest in the function of 
making milk. The aorta runs along under the spinal 
column and finally reaches the femoral artery which is 
about parallel with the femur or thigh bone. This throws 
off a branch (prepubic) which again branches into another 
(the external pubic) and this again after it passes through 
the inguinal ring divides into two branches (the anterior 
or subcutaneous artery, and the posterior abdominal or 
mammary artery) and from these the mammary gland re- 
ceives its supply, as they branch into all the regions of the 
udder. 

Following the blood still further, it passes through the 
udder and appears outside of it in what are knqwn as the 
milk veins. They run along the belly, pass into the body, 
and finally direct the blood to the heart again. In respect 
to the function and relations of the organs up to this point, 
we can understand that the stomach and its accessories 
perform the greatest amount of work in making food into 
blood, while the lungs purify it, and the heart propels it to 
those parts that are in most need of it. 

131. Function of the Udder. In the dairy cow the 
udder is an important organ, for it directly performs the 
work of making milk, which is the dairy cow's specialty. 



80 JUDGING CATTLE 

With the exception of the water, the udder is generally 
considered to produce as the direct product of its own 
action all the constituents of the milk. The casein, the 
fat and the milk sugar are elaborated in the udder, the 
only constituent that is thought not to undergo any 
change is the water in the blood. However, it is from 
the blood that the milk is made, for the action of the 
udder is to so change all the constituents that the milk 
distinctly becomes the peculiar product of the udder. 

To better understand the construction of the udder let 
us follow the course of the small opening which exists at 
the end of the teat. This opening at the upper part of 
the teat swells into a cistern or milk reservoir, where the 
milk accumulates to a degree between the time of milking. 
The milk is prevented from passing out of this cistern 
through the teat by a small muscle (sphincter) which holds 
the milk in the udder until relaxed by the stimulation of 
milking. From this cistern a canal extends further into 
the udder. This branches many times and at the end of 
each branch there is a cluster (a lobe) of tissue very 
similar to a bunch of grapes. What is known as the lobe 
is similar to the bunch, the lobule resembling one grape, 
and what is known as the alveoli the seeds of the grape. 
The alveoli are lined with small cells in which the milk is 
made. These cells produce within themselves the fat pe- 
culiar to milk and also secrete the water, salts, etc., that 
enter into the composition of milk. The milk being se- 
creted in these millions of small cells, which compose the 
udder, passes into the branches that lead to them, and 
from these it passes into the main branch and finally 
reaches the milk cistern, where it accumulates until milk- 
ing begins. The four quarters which make up the whole 
udder are each constructed in the way indicated and they 
act somewhat independently of each other. 




80a 




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80b 



JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE Si 

132. Nervous System. Besides the organs performing 
the work of digestion and secretion, there is another 
feature of the physiology of the dairy cow, which is of 
equal importance. Reference is made to the brain, the 
spinal cord, and the numberless nerves connected with the 
nervous system. These control the action of most of the 
organs of the body and have an effective influence over the 
amount of work that they may accomplish. The nervous 
system is represented by the brain and the spinal cord 
with its branches. The spinal cord runs through the verte- 
bra from the head to the tail and sends out from each 
vertebra branches that connect with the various organs of 
the body. The feature connected with the nervous system 
that has special application to the dairy cow is that of 
temperament. More study has been given this in the 
instance of men, and those who have given most attention 
to it have divided their temperament into four classes — 
nervous, lymphatic, bilious and sanguinary. In cattle the 
two divisions, nervous and lymphatic are most in evidence, 
and they are very markedly characteristic of two classes 
of cattle, dairy stock and beef animals. In an animal of 
nervous temperament, the nervous organization is strong 
and well developed. Such an animal is able to stand labor 
beyond what would be expected of it from its physical 
appearance. The animal of lymphatic temperament is 
sluggish in disposition and inclined to fatten or become 
fleshy. It should be stated that the common conception 
of nervous temperament is not the same as that which 
is referred to here. Generally when reference is made to 
an animal's having a nervous temperament it is commonly 
supposed to mean that it is irritable and excitable which 
actually indicates the lack of nervous control. The term 
as properly used in reference to dairy cattle means an 
animal that is full of nerves^ one that has strong nerves 
which gives tone to the various organs of the body. The 



82 JUDGING CATTLE 

animal of nervous temperament is one that is sensitive and 
active, giving all regions the greatest vitality and all the 
organs the greatest productive powers. 

To sum up, if we consider a cow simply as a machine for 
making milk, we find that the food is manufactured into 
blood by the stomach and its accessories and the blood in a 
general sense is made into milk by the udder so that the 
two main manufacturing centers of the dairy cow are the 
stomach and the udder, and it is around these that what 
is known as the dairy type has evolved its peculiarities. 
But as the dairy cow is more than a machine, as she has 
vitality and recuperative power, we find that the nervous 
system as expressed in the nervous temperament is what 
enables her to maintain her enormous productive powers 
in these centers. 

133. The Dairy Form. It will be understood from th v * 
previous discussion of the function of the dairy cow that 
there are four main centers of activity when she is per- 
forming her function ; the digestive system, the milk se- 
creting system, the circulatory system and the nervous 
system. And it is because of extreme activity 7 in these 
centers that the dairy cow inclines towards a given type. 
She tends to become wedge shaped and lean because of the 
unusual activity in the regions mentioned. Certain por- 
tions of her organization have an undue amount of work 
which tends to their development in an extreme degree, 
while the other portions because of their activity and lack 
of nourishment do not develop to the fullest degree ; this 
results in the instance of unusual performers in a type 
that is inclined to be narrow in front and wide and deep 
behind. While it does not necessarily follow that a cow, 
to be a good dairy animal, must be of this type yet because 
of the work she does, most of them tend towards it. The 
relation of type to performance has been the subject of ex- 
periments by Professor Haecker, reported in Bulletin 67 
of the Minnesota Experiment Station. When a cow is 
milking freely if she possesses good dairy qualities there 
is likely to be a lean appearance over every region of the 




Jersey cow Bosnian's Anna Imp. Champion of the breed at the 
National Dairy Show in 1910. Shown by C. I. Hudson, East Nor- 
wich, N. Y. 



DESCRIPTION OF JERSEY CATTLE. 

IN THE establishment of this breed on the island, from which it takes its 
name, the work was conducted very systematically to produce uniformity 
of type and bovine beauty. In establishing the ideal, two representative ani- 
mals were chosen for excellence and the scale of points adopted was made a 
combination of these. The early breeders adhered very closely to color, mark- 
ings and type but the modern breeder has lessened the attention towards these 
by breeding more strictly for utility as a butter producer. The foundation 
stock for the Jersey represented chiefly by those on the island at the present 
time are noted especially for the deerlike appearance of their heads, fine, slim 
necks, light shoulders, deep though narrow forequarters, large bodies with 
abundant capacity, lean hind quarters and more particularly for the beautiful 
appearance of the udder in the fullness and placing of the teats. Since the 
introduction of a system of testing, the indications which give power of pro- 
duction have overbalanced to some degree the fine discriminations which 
existed as to the general color and markings, of nose, tongue and switch. 
The modern type may be of broken color, or lack in the fancy points referred 
to but it has the ability for larger butter production more intensified, as the 
frame is inclined to show more strength and the general form more ruggedness 
of constitution. . While the type should show the angular form which is con- 
ducive to the highest butter production, yet those- features which contribute 
to beauty, the head and neck, should not be wholly without the graceful lines 
so characteristic of the breed. See scale of points, page 96. 



Guernsey cow Glencoe's Bopeep. Champion cow of her breed at 
the Nationa' Dairy Show in 1911. Shown by W. W. Marsh, Waterloo. 
Iowa. 

DESCRIPTION OF GUERNSEY CATTLE. 

THE GUERNSEY cattle coming from the island of that name have* not had 
attached to them any peculiar requirements as to the type or markings, 
as these have been allowed to evolve themselves as the breed developed under 
the patronage of the Royal Agricultural Society of the island. Being carefully 
protected from the infusions of blood from foreign sources they have become 
of a distinct type and their markings and color have necessarily assumed 
uniformity. The greatest production of butter has been the aim and the 
evolution of the breed and this has evolved the type of large capacity, neces- 
sarily strong in frame without any encouragement being given to the finer 
lines of beauty. The color is usually some shade of fawn with white mark- 
ings, but this is considered subordinate to the color of the skin, which should 
be of a rich orange tinge. The head in all its lineaments should show refine- 
ment, the nostril and mouth large, the face slightly dished and clearly chiseled, 
the eye large and full with the top of the head surmounted by delicate horns. 
The juncture of the head and neck should be trim and light and the latter 
slim. A sharp shoulder should run into a deep chest and the latter should 
swell into a roomy barrel. The back should be sharp and straight and the 
hind quarters completely free from fleshiness with a thin thigh. The udder 
is a leading consideration and it should be long with full, circular form and 
teats large and the milk veins prominent, branched and tortuous. See the 
elaborate official scale of points, page 99. 



82b 



JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 83 

body showing that she is an animal of nervous organiza- 
tion and further that she utilizes all her foods for the 
making of milk and not for the filling out of her form. 

In a good dairy cow there is a feminine look that is very 
characteristic. There is no thickening of the neck, or a 
crest on the neck, or any heaviness of the fore quarters 
indicating the slightest masculinity, but all of these parts 
are light, clean cut and in every way indicative of feminine 
character. The size of the dairy cow comes into the dis- 
cussion of type. This has something to do with her per- 
formance, but there is no distinct advantage in having a 
cow very large if there is not with it characteristics which 
indicate enlarged dairy qualities. 

134. Skin— Soft, Fine. The skin should be soft and 
comparatively thin. It is a point of much value to dis- 
criminate against a thin, papery skin, as such is usually 
associated with the weakness of constitution. The skin 
should be unctuous, or oily to the touch, giving the im- 
pression that butter might be squeezed out of it. When 
the secretions of the skin are healthy it may be expected 
that the secretions in the rest of the body are going on 
vigorously. The skin lining the ear should be of a golden 
color and so should that in the region of the udder, inside 
the thighs, around the eyes, at the root of the tail and 
below any spots of white hair. 

135. Hair — Silky, Fine. The hair covering all the body 
should be short, soft and silky. The udder especially 
should be covered with hair of this character, and not with 
long, coarse hair, as is often observed on poor milking 
animals. Coarse, harsh hair is generally an indication of 
lack of refinement and an evidence of unthriftiness. 

136. Bone — Fine Texture. The dairy cow in her daily 
life needs but sufficient bone to maintain her form. As a 
rule the milking cows are loose in form but possessed of 
fine quality. There should not be any appearance of 
weakness due to fineness, yet the form should not be coarse 
and heavy. 



84 JUDGING CATTLE 

137. Head — Feminine, Lean, Long. A very essential 
quality is for the head to have a feminine appearance. 
The ideal head of a cow is devoid of the heaviness and 
coarseness characteristic of the bull. Just as milk giving 
is a peculiar trait of the cow so is fineness in the head. 
The face should be long and especially lean with the 
features very distinct. The eye should be full, mild and 
bright, and more or less active. A kindly disposition is 
reflected by a mild eye, while one that is bright is in- 
dicative of vigorous circulation and good health. Large, 
dilated nostrils permitting easy entrance of air to the 
lungs, with prominent windpipe, are usually associated 
with depth of chest and lung capacity. In size the ear 
should be medium, possessed of fine quality, and a rich 
orange color inside. The strong horn of the bull is not 
desirable, but rather one that is small and fine in quality. 
The poll should be prominent, with the forehead broad 
and full, showing strong development of brain. 

138. Neck — Thin. A slim, fine neck carrying the head 
gracefully is a characteristic that adds much to the ap- 
pearance of a dairy cow. The fullness and heaviness here 
which characterizes the beef animal should be completely 
absent. The neck must be thin and join an equally thin 
and bare shoulder, with the withers sharp but yet quite 
open. 

The performing powers of the dairy cow depend greatly 
on the depth and volume of the barrel. It has been noted 
the important part that the heart, lungs and stomach per- 
form in the work of a dairy cow, so that the necessity of 
having a barrel that will afford ample room for the work 
of these will be readily apparent. The ribs should be long 
to supply storage capacity for food. The backbone should 
be prominent and strong, for through it and under it run 
two of the largest channels, representing two of the most 
vital systems of the body, the nervous and the circulatory. 

139. Hind Quarter — Lean, Elevated. As a whole, the 
hind quarter in a deep milking cow is strikingly free from 
fleshiness, and there is usually a slight raise in the quarter 



JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 85 

from the loin to the attachment of the tail. Some think 
this conformation indicates vigor, but a more reasonable 
view of the merit of the point asserts that it is to some 
extent unfavorable for the premature birth of calves. 

140. Hips — Sharp, Wide Apart. The hip bones should 
be prominent, sharp and wide apart, giving plenty of room 
to the generative organs. From the point of the hip to 
the tail-head there should be a marked hollow or skrink- 
age, due to the absence of the flesh, a condition character- 
istic of heavy performers when in full milk. 

141. Thigh — Thin, In-curving. The thigh, for the same 
reason should be thin and retreating and possessed of 
length. A thin thigh, decidedly in-curving is a note- 
worthy feature. Attention has been drawn to the use of 
the tail as a plumb line to determine the degree to which 
the thigh curves. 

142. Escutcheon — High, Wide, Spreading. Viewing 
the thighs and the region of the cow above the udder, it 
will be observed that on this part the hair runs in the 
opposite direction from that to which it inclines on the 
other parts of the body. Where it does this, it is known 
as the escutcheon, to which attention was first directed by 
Guenon. It is supposed that the reason of this hair grow- 
ing in the direction mentioned is due to the artery which 
passes this part. The artery supplying the udder with 
blood also nourishes the skin on which the escutcheon 
grows. Many have the idea that Guenon considered this 
the only point of value in determining the worth of 
a cow. The fact is that he considered it only one of ten 
to be included in the merits of a first-class dairy cow. 
There is some reason for considering the escutcheon as it 
is undoubtedly to a degree an index of the quantity of 
blood received by the udder, for the same reason that 
the milk veins are of value as they indicate the quantity of 
blood that leaves the udder. In 1878 a commission was 
appointed by the Governor of Pennsylvania to inquire into 
the reliability of this point, and they reported in its favor. 



86 JUDGING CATTLE 

It is unnecessary to go into the details of the various 
classes of escutcheons as Guenon enumerates eight classes 
and eight orders or, in other words, eight different shapes 
and eight different sizes. He claimed that the shape was 
indicative of the quantity and the size was an index of the 
duration of the milk flow. The broader it extends over 
the thigh and the greater the length of it the better the 
escutcheon is considered to be. Guenon believed that the 
thigh escutcheon indicated the quantity of milk the cow 
gave, while the upper portion or vertical escutcheon the 
length of time she would milk, and with these he con- 
sidered the feel of the skin, the character of the hair, 
and the color of the skin as indicative of the quality of 
the milk. With these features he also associated "the 
thigh ovals" on the udder just above the hind teats, for 
in his view an escutcheon was not considered of a high 
order without them. 

143. Udder — Long, Plastic. When empty the udder 
should nearly lose its form and appear to consist of folds 
of soft, pliable and elastic skin. The hind quarter should 
be full behind and attached high, while the fore quarter 
should extend far forward. Length in the udder is im- 
portant, as it gives a long line of absorption. It should 
be fully thirty inches long from the attachment at the 
back to where it joins the belly. It is to be remembered 
that the udder not only secretes milk from the blood 
and hence is an important organ, but it is also a receptacle 
for holding the milk. In Bulletin 62 issued by Purdue 
University, Professor Plumb presents some instructive 
studies of this important organ. 

144. Teats — Evenly Placed. These should be just 
large enough to fill the hand and yield milk easily but 
never leak. They should be evenly placed, standing at 
least six inches apart in all directions when the udder is 
full. 

145. Milk Veins — Large, Branching. The milk veins 
are considered important as they indicate the amount of 
blood that has passed through the udder. In a cow that 



J-UDGING DAIRY CATTLE 87 

has recently dropped her calf they should be very prom- 
inent and full and branched. The milk wells through 
which the veins pass into the body of the cow are in- 
dicative of the size of the milk veins and consequently 
they should receive consideration, especially when the 
cow is dry, for at that time the milk veins themselves are 
not in evidence. 

SCALE OF POINTS FOR DAIRY CATTLE — COW. *J 

GENERAL APPEARANCE: |§ 

Form, inclined to be wedge shaped -. 6 

Quality, hair fine, soft; skin, mellow, loose, medium 

thickness; secretion yellow; bone clean, fine 6 

Temperament, nervous, indicated by lean appearance 

when in milk 6 

HEAD AND NECK: 

Muzzle, clean cut; mouth large; nostrils large 1 

Eyes, large, bright, full, mild 1 

Face, lean, long, quiet expression 1 

Forehead, broad 1 

Ears, medium size, yellow inside, fine texture 1 

Horns, fine texture, waxy 1 

Neck, fine, medium length, throat clean, light dewlap. 1 

FORE QUARTERS: 

Withers, lean, thin 1 

Shoulders, light, oblique 2 

Legs, straight, short; shank fine 2 

BODY: 

Chest, deep, low, girth large with full fore flank 10 

Barrel, ribs broad, long, wide apart; large stomach. . . 10 

Back, lean straight, open jointed 2 

Loin, broad 2 

Navel, large ' 2 

HIND QUARTERS: 

Hips, far apart, level 2 

Rump, long, wide 2 

Pin Bones or Thurls, high, wide apart 1 

Tail, long, slim; fine hair in switch 1 

Thighs, thin, long 4 

Escutcheon, spreading over thighs, extending high and 

wide; large thigh ovals 2 

Udder, long, attached high and full behind, extending 

far in front and full, flexible; quarters even and free 

from fleshiness 20 

Teats, large, evenly placed 5 

Mammary Veins, large, long, tortuous, branched with 

double extension; large and numerous milk wells. 5 

Legs, straight; shank fine 2 

Total , 100 



88 JUDGING CATTLE 



IV. JUDGING DAIRY BULLS. 



146. Judging Dairy Bulls. In judging dairy bulls 
many points may be noted that they have in common 
with dairy cows, especially features of type, but it is a 
much more difficult task to judge between those of this 
sex than it is to discriminate between developed cows. 

147. — Purity of Breeding. It seems necessary to say 
that the first requirement in the dairy bull, as in the in- 
stance of all other stock sires, is purity of breeding. The 
sire should meet all the requirements demanded of a pure- 
bred animal for registration. In addition the dairy sire 
should have the characteristics which are called for by 
the scale of points for the breed represented. 

148. Uniformity of Breeding. To secure the greatest 
prepotency in a sire, the breeding for some generations 
back must show a uniformity in the type and characteris- 
tics of the ancestry. When the animals mentioned in a 
pedigree lack uniformity, or have been dissimilar in type 
and characteristics, it is not probable that the progeny 
will show that uniformity which every breeder desires to 
see in the herd. 

149. Pedigree Based on Performance. The most valu- 
able characteristic relating to the pedigree of a dairy bull 
is the number and the merit of the records that have been 
made by the cows that are named in it. This feature is 
not usually considered in the show ring, though it should 
be carefully studied in selecting a bull to breed to. The 
most important feature of the pedigree of a dairy sire 
is the degree to which his dam was a good dairy cow, 
and in a lessening degree the records of those that pre- 
ceded her. Next in importance to this is the number 
and the merit of the performances of the cows that 
are mentioned in the sires' line. Not only should the 
dams in the pedigrees have good records as performers, 
but the males should also be getters of performers. A 
bull that has breeding of high order based on perform- 



JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 89 

ance, is as certain as things can be to sire superior stock, 
provided he is satisfactory as an individual. 

150. Qualities Associated with Individuality. Impres- 
sive power or prepotency and constitution are indicated 
to a certain extent by the individual. The first mentioned 
may be estimated with some certainty by the masculine 
appearance of the bull in the head, horn, and crest ; while 
the constitution is reflected by the depth of chest, the 
size of the navel and the general appearance of the hair, 
hide, and eye, as these are closely associated with thrift 
and vigor. The type in other respects should be that out- 
lined for the dairy cow. A very common defect in the 
form of the dairy bull is roundness of the hips and undue 
fullness of the thighs, traceable to heaviness of flesh in 
these regions. 

The hip bones and the hocks should be prominent and 
between these points there may be some falling away 
and there should be no tendency towards fatness in this 
region. The undeveloped teats should be large and well 
placed and the navel should be prominent. The skin, 
especially where it gathers in loose folds between the 
thighs and at other points, should be soft, pliable and 
rich in color. All points should show much more open- 
ness and relaxation than is customary in beef animals, for 
this characteristic appears to be prevalent among deep 
milking types. 

151. Judging Calves. In the selection of the best 
calves the merit of the dam as a dairy cow is a valuable 
guide but it is not a point that is usually employed in 
show yard judging. In reference to the form of heifer 
calves the type of the typical dairy cow in miniature is 
the most desirable. The long face, the thin neck, light 
shoulder, sharp withers, deep chest, large capacious body, 
wide, long and thin rump, thin thighs, mellow hide of 
red color and soft hair should all be in evidence. The 
folds of skin in the udder regions should be loose and 
pliable. The teats should not be bunched together but 



90 JUDGING CATTLE 

wide apart and evenly placed. It is desirable to have the 
navel of such size that it may be easily noticed, and the 
form in every part should have the open and relaxed 
condition referred to in discussing developed cows. The 
bull calf differs in no marked degree from the heifer calf 
until it approaches the age of one year when the sex 
characteristics have developed to a noticeable extent 



V. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE. 

ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE. 



SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY AMEEICAN E 

ABERDEEN ANGUS ASSOCIATION — BULL. £ 

Color — Black. White is objectionable, except on the under- 
line behind the navel, and there only to a moderate 
extent; a white cod is most undesirable 3 

Head — Forehead broad; face slightly prominent, and taper- 
ing toward the nose; muzzle fine; nostrils wide and 
open; distance from eyes to nostrils of moderate 
length; eyes mild, full and expressive, indicative of 
good disposition; ears of good medium size; well set 
and well covered with hair; poll well defined, and 
without any appearance of horns or scurs; jaws clean. 10 

Throat — Clean, without any development of loose flesh un- 
derneath 3 

Neck — Of medium length, muscular, with moderate crest 
(which increases with age), spreading out to meet the 
the shoulders, with full neck vein 3 

Shoulders — Moderately oblique, well covered on the blades 
and toip; with vertebra or backbone slightly above the 
scapula or shoulder blades, which should be moderate- 
ly broad 6 

Chest — Wide and deep, also round and full just back of 
elbows 10 

Brisket — Deep and moderately projecting from between the 

legs, and proportionately covered with flesh and fat. . 4 

Ribs — Well sprung from the backbone, arched and deep, 

neatly joined to the crops and loins 8 

Back— Broad and straight from crops to hooks; loins 
strong; ihook bones moderate in width, not prominent 
and well covered; rumps long, full, level and rounded 
neatly into hind quarters 10 

Hind Quarters — Deep and full; thighs thick and muscular, 
and in proportion to hind quarters; twist filled out 
well in its "seam" so as to form an even wide plane 
^tween thighs 8 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOE CATTLE 5,1 

ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE. "§ 

BULL — CONTINUED. o 

O 

Tail — Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a line with 

the back and hanging at right angles to it 3 

Underline — Straight, as nearly as possible; flank, deep and 

full . ; 4 

Legs — Short, straight and squarely placed, hind legs slight- 
ly inclined forward below the hocks; forearm muscu- 
lar; bones fine and clean 4 

Flesh — Even and without patchiness 4 

Skin — Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, abundantly 
covered with thick soft hair. (Much of the thrifti- 
ness, feeding properties, and value of the animal de- 
pend upon this quality, which is of great weight in the 
grazier's and butcher's judgment. A good "touch" will 
compensate for some deficiencies of form. Nothing can 
compensate for a skin hard and stiff. In raising the 
skin from the body it should have a substantial, soft, 
flexible feeling, and when beneath the outspread hand 
it should move easily as though resting on a soft cellu- 
lar substance, which however becomes firmer as the 
animal ripens. A thin papery skin is objectionable, 
especially in a cold climate) 10 

General Appearance — Elegant, well bred and masculine. 

The walk square, the step quick, and the head up. . . . 10 

Total 100 

When bulls are exihibited with their progeny in a separate 
class, add 25 counts for progeny. 



SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY AMERICAN -g 

ABERDEEN ANGUS ASSOCIATION — COW. o 

Color — Black. White is objectionable, except on the under- 
line behind the navel and there only to a moderate 
extent 2 

Head — Forehead moderately broad and slightly indented; 
tapering toward the nose; muzzle fine; nostrils wide 
and open; distance from eyes to nostrils of moderate 
length; eyes full, bright and expressive, indicative of 
good disposition; ears large, slightly rising upward, 
and well furnished with hair; poll well defined, and 
without, any appearance of horns or scurs; jaws clean. 10 

Throat — Clean, without any development of loose fleslh un- 
derneath 3 

Neck — Of medium length, spreading out to meet the shoul- 
ders, with full neck vein 3 

Shoulders — Moderately oblique, well covered on the blades 
and top; with vertebra or backbone slightly above the 
scapula or shoulder blades, which should be mod- 
erately broad 6 

Chest — Wide and deep; round and full just back of el- 
bows 10 

Brisket — Deep and moderately projecting from between the 

legs, and proportionately covered with flesh and fat. . 4 



92 JUDGING CATTLE 



ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE, 

w 

COW — CONTINUED. C 

Ribs — Well sprung from the backbone, arched and deep, g 
neatly joined to the crops and loins 8 

Back — Broad and straight from crops to hooks; loins 
strong; hook bones moderate in width, not prominent, 
and well covered; rumps long, full, level and rounded 
neatly into hind quarters 10 

Hind Quarters — Deep and full; thighs thick and muscular, 
and in proportion to hind quarters; twist filled out 
well in its "seam" so as to form an even wide plane 
between thighs 8 

Tail — Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a line with 

the back and hanging at right angles to it 3 

Udder — Not fleshy, coming well forward in line with the 
body and well up behind; teats squarely placed, well 
apart and of good size 8 

Underline — Straight, as nearly as possible, flank deep and 

full 4 

Legs — Short, straight and squarely placed; hind legs slight- 
ly inclined forward below the hocks; fore arm muscu- 
lar; bones fine and clean 3 

Flesh — Even and without patchiness 3 

Skin — -Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, abundantly 
covered with thick, soft hair. (Much of the thrifti- 
ness, feeding properties and value of the animal de- 
pend upon this quality, which is of great weight in 
the grazier's and butcher's judgment. A good "touch" 
will compensate for some deficiencies of form. Noth- 
ing can compensate for a skin hard and stiff. In rais- 
ing the skin from the body it should have a substan- 
tial, soft, flexible feeling, and when beneath the out- 
spread hand it should move easily, as though resting 
on a soft, cellular substance, which, however, becomes 
firmer as the animal ripens. A thin, papery skin is 
objectionable, especially in a cold climate) 10 

General Appearance — Elegant, well bred and feminine. The 

walk square, the step quick, and the head up ..... . 5 



Total 100 

In judging heifers omit No. 12, and add 3 counts to "Flesh" 
and 5 counts to General Appearance. 




Ayrshire Cow. Auchenbrain Brown Kate 4th 27943. A. R. 547. 
One year record : 23,022 lbs. milk ; 3.99% fat ; 9,176 lbs. fat ; 1,080 lbs. butter, 
representatives of this breed. See official scale of points, pages 104-106. 

DESCRIPTION OF AYRSHIRE CATTLE. 

»1*HIS BREED of Scotch dairy cattle originated under the rugged conditions 
■ of Ayrshire and in their type and general characteristics they exemplify 
the form and quality which would be called for in a dairy animal required 
to make the most economical use of their food and do the best under condi- 
tions too severe for finer and more delicate cattle. The head is slim, rather 
long in the face and surmounted with a horn not wholly devoid of strength 
the neck, somewhat short is clean cut though not delicate, the shoulder is 
sharp and the chest full and deep, the body is straight in its top lines, slightly 
more compact than usually found in the dairy type, but has the volume which 
invariably results in large capacity for consumption and production. The 
hind quarter is moderately wide and covered with flesh while the thigh is 
thin and the udder long and excellent in its proportion. The size and the 
placing of the teats is a feature wttich calls for careful attention in ranking 
representatives of this breed. See official scale of points, pages 105 and 106. 



92a 





Holstein-Friesian cow Colantha 4th in her four year old and six 
year old form. The lower illustration is a photo of her as a four year 
old. Compare this with the upper, which is a photo of her as a six year 
old, arid ;t he changes that take place in a dairy cow as she approaches 
maturity may be seen. This cow is owned by Messrs. Gillett & Son, of 
of Rosendale, Wis., and her records are as follows : 

age. Milk, 1 dav. Butter, 1 w'k. Milk, 1 y'r. Butter Fat,l y'r. 

2 years 52.2 lbs. , 14.1 lbs. 12,463.4 lbs. 

3 years 64.8 lbs. 18.7 lbs. 14,9ol.5 lbs. 57.. 7 lbs. 

4 years 70.2 lbs. 21.1 lbs. 13,992.2 lbs. 532.9 lbs. 

5 years 14,481.8 lbs. 

6 years 77.3 lbs. 24.5 lbs. 14,782.7 lbs. 562.9 lbs. 

This cow was also first in the official tests of the Holstein-Friesian 
Association in 1900, and also winner of first prize in tests for economy 
of production making 19.6 lbs. fat in one week at a food cost of 6 3-5 
cents per pound. 

DESCRIPTION OF HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE. 

THE ORIGINAL type of this breed had more size of frame than that which 
characterizes the modern representative. The conditions existing have 
favored the production of a large dairy animal with extreme development for 
yielding milk. The type which is now common shows more refinement but 
still has the characteristics in the main which identified the first importations. 
The color should be black and white, with no mixture of this or tinge of 
brown. The head should be lengthy, generally because of a long face, the 
eye should be large and bright and that portion of the head between the 
horn and the eye should be full. The neck should be slim and lengthy, the 
shoulder sharp and fitting well while the chest should be deep and the body 
have for its most noted feature a large development of the digestive organs. 
The loins should be strong though bare of flesh and the hind quarters 
straight and angular and the thighs thin. The frame should show as much 
refinement as possible without any indication of delicacy. The general 
conformation should be such as to favor large capacity for the consumption 
of food and the production of the largest quantity of milk. See official scale 
of points page 91. 



02b 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 93 

HEREFORD CATTLE. 

to 
SCALE OF POINTS FOR HEREFORD CATTLE. fi 

Color — Medium, deep, rich red, with white head, breast, § 
belly, crest, switch and ankles. Objections: White 
back of crop high on flank or too high on legs 5 

Head — Forehead broad and prominent, face short, slight- 
ly tapering towards nose; muzzle full; nostrils wide 
and open; eyes large and expressive; ears of me- 
dium size, well set and well covered with hair; horns 
of medium size; even color, coming from head at 
right angles, set on level with crops, back and tail 
head, curving forward and downward 8 

Throat — Clean, without any excessive development of 

loose flesh or fat underneath 2 

Neck — Short, neat, spreading out to meet shoulders, with 
full neck vein, free from loose skin. (Males: neck 
muscular, with full crest according to age. ) 2 

Shoulders — Straight, round, full, smooth and well cov- 
ered; top of shoulder blades slightly below ver- 
tebrae, good width on top 6 

Chest — Wide, deep, round and full just back of shoulders 6 

Brisket — Deep and wide, moderately projecting, free from 

flabbiness 2 

Ribs — Well sprung from backbone, close together, long 
and arched, carrying the full width of shoulders 
and deeply and smoothly covered 8 

Back and Loin — Broad, straight and heavily covered from 
crops to hooks, hooks moderately wide and well 
covered 10 

Rump— Long, wide, smooth and well covered, carrying 
width in proportion to width of back and hooks, 
joining smoothly into quarters 5 

Quarters — Long, straight, muscular, full, deep and thick 4 

Thigh and Twist — Full and thick, carried well down to 

hocks 3 

Tail — Tail head level with line of back, tail dropping at 

right angles to back line 1 

Underline — Straight, flanks deep and full 3 

Legs — Short, straight and squarely placed, perpendicular 
both from side and end view, forearm muscular, 
bones strong and clean 6 

Flesh — Deep, firm, smooth, uniform covering of all parts 

and free from patchiness 8 

Skin — Of moderate thickness, mellow, pliable and loose, 

abundantly covered with long, thick, silky hair 6 

General Appearance — Vigorous, compact and symmetrical. 
Bulls masculine and possessing an abundance of 
quality and predominant breeding characteristics. 
Females matronly, roomy, smooth, showing quality 
and feminine appearance throughout 10 

Weight — Age and condition to be considered 5 



94 JUDGING CATTLE 

HOLSTEIN'FRIESIAN CATTLE. . 

c 

SCALE OF POINTS FOR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN BULL. g 

Head — Showing full vigor; elegant in contour 2 

Forehead — Broad between the eyes ; dishing 2 

Face — Of medium length; clean and trim, especially un- 
der the eyes; the bridge of the nose straight 2 

Muzzle — Broad, with strong lips 1 

Ears — Of medium size; of fine texture; the hair plentiful 

and soft; the secretions oily and abundant 1 

Eyes — Large; full; mild; brignt 2 

Horns — Short; of medium size at base; gradually dimin- 
ishing towards tips; oval; inclining forward; mod- 
erately curved inward; of fine texture; in appear- 
ance waxy 1 

Neck — Long; finely crested (if the animal is mature); 
fine and clean at juncture with the head; nearly 
free from dewlap; strongly and smoothly joined to 
shoulders 5 

Shoulders — Of medium height; of medium thickness, and 
smoothly rounded at tops; broad and full at sides; 
smooth over front 4 

Chest — Deep and low; well filled and smooth in the 
brisket; broad between the forearms; full in the 
foreflanks (or through at the heart) 7 

Crops — Comparatively full; nearly level with the 

shoulders 4 

Chine — Strong; straight; broadly developed, with open 

vertebrae 6 

Barrel — Long; well rounded; with large abdomen, 

strongly and trimly held up 7 

Loins and Hips — Broad; level or nearly level between 
hook-bones; level and strong laterally; spreading 
out from the chine broadly and nearly level; the 
hook-bones fairly prominent 7 

Rump — Long; broad; high: nearly level laterally; com- 
paratively full above the thurl; carried out straight 
to dropping of tail 7 

Thurl — High; broad 4 

Quarters — Deep; broad; straight behind; wide and full 

at sides; open in the twist. . . , 5 

Flanks — Deep ; full 2 

Legs — Comparatively short; clean and nearly straight; 
wide apart; firmly and squarely set under the body; 
arms wide, strong and tapering; feet of medium size, 
round, solid and deep 5 

Tail — Large aft base, the setting well back; tapering fine- 
ly to switch; the end of bone reaching to hocks or 
below; the switch full 2 




Holstein Bull. Paul Colamo Korndyke 4934 2. Grand Champion at 
the National Dairy Show, Chicago, 1912. 




Jersey Bull. Viola's Golden Jolly. 



!ll;l 




Holstein herd owned by Messrs. W. B. Smith & Sons, of Columbus, 
O. In this remarkable photograph of a large herd there cannot be 
found a single animal which does not illustrate desirable dairy type. 




Photo by Schreiber. 

Photograph of the head of the Jersey cow, Buttercup. This 
photograph shows in an unusual degree the conformation of head and 
neck which is desirable in a highly bred Jersey. 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 95 



SCALE OF POINTS FOR IIOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN BULL M 

Continued a 

Hair and Handling — Hair healthful in appearance; fine, g 
soft, and furry; skin of medium thickness and loose; 
mellow under the hand; the secretions oily, abun- 
dant and of a rich brown or yellow color 10 

Mammary Veins — Large; full; entering large orifices; 
double extension; with special development, such as 

forks, branches, connections, etc 10 

Rudimentary Teats — Large; well placed 2 

Escutcheon — Largest; finest 2 

100 



SCALE OF POINTS FOR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN COW. 

Head — Decidedly feminine in appearance; fine in contour 2 

Forehead — Broad between the eyes; dishing 2 

Face — Of medium length; clean and trim, especially un- 
der the eyes; showing facial veins; the bridge of the 
nose straight 2 

Muzzle — Broad, with strong lips 1 

Ears — Of medium size; of fine texture; the hair plentiful 

and soft; the secretions oily and abundant 1 

Eyes 1 — Large; full; mild; bright 2 

Horns — Small; tapering finely towards the tips; set 
moderately narrow at base; oval; inclining forward; 
well bent inward; of fine texture; in appearance 
waxy 1 

Neck — Long; fine and clean at juncture with the head; 
free from dewlap; evenly and smoothly joined to 
shoulders 4 

Shoulders — Slightly lower than the hips; fine and even 

over tops; moderately broad and full at sides 3 

Chest — Of moderate depth and lowness; smooth and 
moderately full in the brisket; full in the foreflanks 
(or through at the heart) 6 

Crops — Moderately full 2 

Chine — Straight; strong; broadly developed, with open 

vertebrae Q 

Barrel — Long; of wedge shape; well rounded; with a 
large abdomen, trimly held up. (In judging the 
last item age must be considered.) 7 

Iioin and Hips — Broad; level or nearly level between the 
hook-bones; level and strong laterally; spreading 
from chine broadly and nearly level; hook-bones 
fairly prominent G 

Rump — Long; high; broad with roomy pelvis; nearlv 
level laterally; comparatively full above the thurl; 
carried out straight to dropping of tail •> 

Thurl — High; broad 3 



96 JUDGING CATTLE 



SCALE OF POINTS FOR HOLSTEIN-FEIESIAN COW a 

Continued c 

Quarters — Deep; straight behind; twist filled with de- g 
velopment of udder; wide and moderately full at the 
sides 4 

Flanks — Deep; comparatively full 2 

Legs — Comparatively short; clean and nearly straight; 
wide apart; firmly and squarely set under the body; 
feet of medium size, round, solid and deep 4 

Tail — Large at base, the setting well back; tapering fine- 
ly to switch; the end of the bone reaching to hocks 
or below; the switch full 2 

Hair and Handling — Hair healthful in appearance; fine, 
soft and furry; the skin of medium thickness and 
loose; mellow under the hand; the secretions oily, 
abundant and of a rich brown or yellow color. ... 8 

Mammary Veins — Very large; very crooked (age must be 
taken into consideration in judging of size and crook- 
edness) ; entering very large or numerous orifices; 
double extension; with special developments, such 
as branches, connections, etc 10 

Udder — Very capacious; very flexible; quarters even; 
nearly filling the space in the rear below the twist; 
extending well forward in the front; broad and well 
held up 12 

Teats — Well formed; wide apart; plumb and of conven- 
ient size 2 

Escutcheon — Largest; finest 2 

100 



JERSEY CATTLE. 

SCALE OF POINTS FOR JERSEY COW, ADOPTED AT ANNUAL 

MEETING OF THE AMERICAN JERSEY CATTLE 

CLUB, MAY 7, 1913. 

Dairy Temperament and Constitution. 
Head, 7. — 

A — Medium size, lean; face dished; broad between 
eyes; horns medium size, incurving 3 

B — Eyes full and placid; ears medium size, fine, 
carried alert; muzzle broad, with wide open nos- 
trils and muscular lips; jaw strong 4 

Neck, 4. — 

Thin, rather long, with clean throat, neatly joined 

to head and shoulders 4- 

Body, 37. — 

A — Shoulders light, good distance through from 
point to point, but thin at withers; chest deep and 
full between and just back of fore legs 5 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 97 

JERSEY CATTLE COW 

01 

Continued c 

B — Ribs amply sprung and wide apart, giving wedge § 
shape, with deep, large abdomen, firmly held up, 
with strong muscular development ' 10 

C — Back straight and strong, with prominent spinal 
processes; loins broad and strong 5 

D — Rump long to tail-setting, and level from hip- 
bones to rump-bones 6 

E — Hip-bones high and wide apart 3 

F — Thighs flat and wide apart, giving ample room 
for udder 3 

G- — Legs proportionate to size and of fine quality, 
well apart, with good feet, and not to weave or 
cross in walking 2 

H — Hide loose and mellow 2 

I — Tail thin, long, with good switch, not coarse at 
setting-on 1 

Mammary Development. 
Udder, 26. — 

A — Large size, flexible and not fleshy 6 

B — Broad, level or spherical, not deeply cut between 
teats 4 

C — Fore udder full ard well rounded, running well 
forward of front teats 10 

D — Rear udder well rounded, and well out and up 

behind 6 

Teats, 8. — 

Of good and uniform length and size, regularly and 

squarely placed 8 

Milk- Veins, 4 — 

Large, long, tortuous and elastic, entering large and 

numerous orifices 4 

Size, 4. — 

Mature cows, 800 to 1,000 pounds 4 

General Appearance, 10. — 

A symmetrical balancing of all the parts, and a pro- 
portion of parts to each other, depending on size 
of animal, with the general appearance of a high- 
class animal, with capacity for food and produc- 
tiveness at pail 10 



100 



98 JUDGING CATTLE 



SCALE OF POINTS FOR JERSEY BULL, ADOPTED AT ANNUAL 

MEETING OF THE AMERICAN JERSEY CATTLE 3 

CLUB, MAY 7, 1913. 3 

Head, 10. — 5 

A — Broad, medium length; face dished; narrow be- 
tween horns; horns medium in size and incurving 5 

B — Muzzle broad, nostrils open, eyes full and bold; 
entire expression one of vigor, resolution and mas- 
culinity 5 

Neck, 7. — 

Medium length, with full crest at maturity; clean at 
throat 7 

Body, 57. — 

A — Shoulders full and strong, good distance through 
from point to point, with well-defined withers; 
chest deep and full between and just back of fore 
legs , 15 

B — Barrel long, of good depth and breadth, with 
strong, rounded, well-sprung ribs 15 

C — Back straight and strong 5 

D — Rump of good length and proportion to size of 
body, and level from hip-bones to rump-bones. ... 7 

E — Loins broad and strong; hips rounded, and of 
imedium width compared with female 

F — Thighs rather flat, well cut up behind, high 
arched flank 3 

G — Legs proportionate to size and of fine quality, well 
apart, with good feet, and not to weave or cross in 
walking 5 

Rudimentary Teats, 2.— 

Well placed 2 

Hide, 2. — 

Loose and mellow 2 

Tail, 2. — 

Thin, long, reaching the hock, with good switch, not 

coarse or high at setting-on 2 

Size, 5. — 

Mature bulls, 1,2 00 to 1,500 pounds 5 

General Appearance, 15. — 

Thoroughly masculine in character, with a harmoni- 
ous blending of the parts to each other; thorough- 
ly robust, and such an animal as in a herd of wild 
cattle would likely become master of the herd by 
the law cf natural selection and survival of the 
fittest . . . 15 

100 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 



99 



GUERN SEY CA TTLE. 

SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN -2 

GUERNSEY CATTLE CLUB, DEC. 13, 1899 — COW. o 

U 

Clean cut, lean face; strong, sinewy 
jaw; wide muzzle with wide open 
nostrils; full, bright eye with quiet 
and gentle expression; forehead long 
and broad 5 

Long, thin neck with strong juncture 
to head; clean throat. Backbone 
rising well between shoulder blades; 
large rugged spinal processes, indi- 
cating good development of the spinal 

cord 5 

Dairy Temper- / p e i v j s arc hing and wide; rump long; 

anient. Con- ( w ide, strong structure of spine at 

1 8 \ setting on of tail. Long, thin tail 

with good switch; Thin, in-curving 

thighs 5 

Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide 
apart, giving an open, relaxed con- 
formation; thin, arching flank.... 5 

Abdomen large and deep, with strong 
muscular and navel development, 
indicative of capacity and vitality. . 15 

Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feel- 
ing and texture but not thick 3 

Milking Marks / Escutcheon wide on tMghs, high and 

denoting / broad with thigh ovals 2 

quantity of ) Milk veins crooked, branching and 

flow ... .10 \ prominent, with large or deep wells 8 

Udder full in front 8 

Udder full and well up behind 8 

Udder Forma- ) udder of large size and capacity 4 

tion 26 ] Teats wide apart, squarely placed and 

of good and even size 6 

/ Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone 

Indicating Col- \ of tail, at base of horns, on udder, 

or of Milk. .15 \ teats and body generally. Hoof, am- 

\ ber colored 15 

Milking Marks , Udder showing plenty of su bstance but 

•t en °f 1 fl g q 6 1 n0t t0 ° meaty 6 

Color of hair, a shade of fawn with 
white markings. Cream colored nose. 
Horns amber colored, small, curved 
Symmetry and ) and not coarse. Hoofs amber color- 
Size 5 ] ed 3 

Size for tine breed: Mature cows 
four years old or over about 1,050 

pounds 2 

Total 100 



100 



JUDGING CATTLE 



Temperament. 
Constitution 38 



SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN f 

GUERNSEY CATTLE CLUB, DEC. 13, 1899— BULL. I 

Clean cut, lean face; strong, sinewy 
jaw; wide muzzle with wide open 
nostrils; full, bright eye with quiet 
gentle expression; forehead long and 
broad 5 

Long Masculine neck with strong junc- 
ture to head; clean throat. Back- 
bone rising well between shoulder 
blades; large, rugged spinal proc- 
esses, indicating good development 
of the spinal cord 5 

Pelvis arching and wide; rump long; 
wide, strong structure of spine at 
setting on off tail. Long, thin tail with 
good switch. Thin, in-curving 
thighs 5 

Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide 
apart, giving an open, relaxed con- 
formation; tihin, arching flank.... 5 

Abdomen large and deep, with strong 
muscle and navel development, in- 
dicative of capacity and vitality. . . 

Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feel 
ing and texture, but not thick. . . . 



15 



Dairy Prepo- 
tency 15 

Rudimentaries 
and Milk 
Veins . . 10 

Indicating color 
of Milk in Off- 
spring .... 1 5 



As shown by having a great deal of 
vigor, style, alertness and resolute 
appearance 15 

Rudimentaries of good size, squarely 
and broadly placed in front of and 
free from scrotum. Milk veins prom- 
inent 10 

Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone 
of tail, at base of horns and body 
generally, hoofs amber colored.... 15 



Symmetry and 
Size 22 



Color of hair a shade of fawn with 
white markings. Cream colored 
nose. Horns amber colored, curv- 
ing and not coarse 8 

Size for breed: Mature bulls four years 
old or over, about 1,500 lbs 4 

General appearance as indicative of the 
power to beget animals of strong 

dairy qualities _10 

Total 100 



EXPLANATORY NOTES BY COMMITTEE. 

We recognize the Guernsey should be — 

First. A dairy animal with a distinctive dairy temperament 
and conformation, having a strong, nervy structure with a 
corresponding flow of nervous energy, and every indication 
of capacity and vitality*. 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 101 

Second. In color of hair, a shade of fawn, with white on 
limbs and undor part of body are considered the prevailing 
markings, and some degree of uniformity is desirable. 

Third. One of the important distinguishing features of 
the breed is the presence of a yellow color in the pigment 
cf the skin, which is indicative of rich golden color in the milk. 
This is very pronounced in the Guernsey and held by her to 
the greatest extent under all conditions of stabling and feed. 
The intensity of this trait is more marked in some animals 
and families than in others, but it should be kept at the high- 
est standard. It is fast being recognized that this color is ac- 
companied by a superior flavor in the milk and thus in the 
butter. 

DAIRY TEMPERAMENT. 

By "dairy temperament" is meant a strong overruling pre- 
disposition or tendency to turn the consumption of food 
towards the production of milk with a high content of solids, 
especially butter fat as against the constitutional tendency 
so often seen to turn food into flesh. Even in the strongest 
dairy breeds there are more or less frequent out-crops in 
male and female of the flesh-making temperament. To breed 
from such animals, while we are striving to establish a pre- 
potent dairy temperament or tendency is not wise. All 
cattle bred specifically for dairy purposes should possess a clear 
and decided dairy temperament, for it is that quality of 
character we desire most to establish, enlarge and perpetuate 
in the Guernsey cow. 

This is especially indicated by the shape of the head, show- 
ing brain capacity, wide muzzle, open nostril, full, bright eyes, 
feminine neck and a construction of the backbone indicating 
a strong flow of nerve power and support from the brain to 
all of the material organs. 

CONSTITUTION. 

In breeding our domestic animals, especially for long 
service like the dairy cow, it is very important that they should 
have abundant vital power which we call "constitution." But 
constitution must be judged and measured by the peculiar 
function the animal is bred to fulfill. With the race horse 
the function is speed; with the steer, the laying on of flesh; 
with the dairy cow, the production of milk solids. In all these 
various functions the animal that is to represent any one of 
them must show not only large capacity in the line of that 
function but also the ability to endure long and well the 
strain of such function and keep in good health. Constitution 
is best indicated by a full development at the navel and strong 
abdominal walls, showing that the animal when in the prenatal 
state was abundantly nourished by the mother through a 
well developed umbilical cord. 

PREPOTENCY. 

In the scale for bulls, for the first time, we believe, in the 
history of dairy breeds, this point is introduced. The reason 
we have included it is that "prepotency" is the chief consider- 
ation in the selection of all male breeding animals. The pedi- 



i02 JUDGING CATTLE 

gree and conformation is often all that can be desired, but 
because the bull is lacking in prepotent breeding power he is 
an expensive failure. This quality is in a sense, difficult to 
perceive or describe, but we know certain animals have it in 
a high degree and others fail of it completely. It is fairly well 
indicated by vigor of appearance, strong, resolute bearing and 
abundant nervous energy. We would distinguish this from an 
ugly disposition. A bull is ugly by the way he is handled rather 
than by Ihis breeding. What we want is strong, impressive 
blood. A dull, sluggish spirit and action, we consider it 
indicative of a lack of true dairy prepotency, but we would pre- 
fer to breed to a rather sluggish appearing bull with first class 
rudimentaries than to a stylish one with badly placed rudi- 
mentaries. 

KUDIMENTAEY TEATS. 

We consider that a well balanced and well shaped udder in 
the cow is largely due to the way the rudimentary teats are 
placed on the sire. If they are crowded close together the re- 
sult is likely to be narrow, pointed udders. If they are placed 
well apart, of good size, and well forward of the scrotum, 
the effect we think will be to influence largely the production 
of well shaped udders in the resulting heifers and counteract 
the tendency to ill-shaped udders inheritable firom dams 
deficient in this respect. We believe the future excellence 
of the Guernsey cow will be greatly aided by close attention 
on the pant of her breeders to this point. 



RED POLLED CATTLE. 

DESCRIPTION OF STANDARD AND SCALE OF POINTS FOR RED POLLED CATTLE. 

COW. 
DISQUALIFICATIONS — Sours, or any evidence whatever of a 
horny growth on the head. Any white spots on body above 
lower line or brush of tail. £ 

COLOR — Any shade of red. The switch of tail and udder may be -| 
white, with some white running forward to the navel. . Nose of £ 
a clear flesh color. Interior of ears should be of a yellowish, 

waxy color 2 

OBJECTIONS — An extreme dark, or an extreme light red is not 
desirable. A cloudy nose or one with dark spots. 

HEAD — Of medium length, wide between the eyes, sloping grad- 
ually from above eyes to poll. The poll well defined and prom- 
inent, with a sharp dip behind it in center of head. Ears of 
medium size and well carried. Eyes prominent ; face well dished 

between the eyes. Muzzle wide with large nostrils 6 

OBJECTIONS — A rounding or flat appearance of the poll. 
Head too long and narrow. 

NECK — Of medium length, clean cut, and straight from head to 
top of shoulder with inclination to arch, wnen fattened, and 
may show folds of loose skin underneath when in milking form 3 

SHOULDER — Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, coming up 

level with line of back 6 

OBJECTIONS — Shoulder too prominent, giving the appearance 
of weakness in heart girth. Shoulder protruding above 
line of back. 

CHEST — Broad and deep, insuring constitution. Brisket prominent 

and coming well forward 10 

BACK AND RIBS — Back medium long, straight and level from 
withers to the setting on of tail ; moderately wide, with spring 
of ribs, starting from the back bone, giving a rounding ap- 
pearance, with ribs flat and fairly wide apart 14 

OBJECTIONS — Front ribs too straight, causing depression 
back of shoulders. Drop an back or loin below the top line. 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 103 

HIPS — Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well covered 3 

QUARTERS — Of good length, full, rounding, and level; thighs 

wide, roomy, and not too meaty 6 

OBJECTIONS — Prominent hooks, sunken quarters. 

TAIL — Tail head strong and setting well forward, long and taper- 
ing to a full switch 2 

LEGS — Short, straight, squarely placed, medium bone 3 

OBJECTIONS — Hocks crooked, legs placed too close together. 

FORE-UDDER — Full and flexible, reaching well forward, extend- 
ing down level with hind-udder 10 

HIND-UDDER — Full and well up behind 10 

TEATS — Well placed, wide apart and of reasonably good size .... 4 
OBJECTIONS — Lack of development, especially in forward 
udder. Udder too deep, "bottle shaped" and teats too close 
together. Teats unevenly placed and either too large or 
too small. 

MILK VEINS — Of medium size, full, flexible, extending well for- 
ward. Well retained within the body ; milk wells of medium 
size 6 

HIDE — Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thickness, with a good 

full coat of soft hair 5 

OBJECTIONS — Thin, papery skin, or wiry hair. 

CONDITION — Healthy, moderate to liberal flesh evenly laid on ; 

glossy coat ; animal presented in good bloom 10 

Total 100 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION — Cow medium wedge form, low set, top 
and bottom lines straight except at flank, weight 1300 lbs. to 
1500 lbs. when mature and finished. 

BULL. 
DISQUALIFICATIONS — Scntrs, or any evidence whatever of a 
homy growth on the head. Any white spots on body above 
lower line or brush of tail. 
COLOR — Any shade of red. The switch of tail may be white, with 
some white running forward to the navel. Nose of a clear 
flesh color. Interior of ears should be of a yellowish, waxy 

color 2 

OBJECTIONS — An extreme dark or an extreme light red is 
not desirable. A cloudy nose or one with dark spots. 
HEAD — Wide, strong and masculine, relatively short. Poll stronger 
and less prominent than in cow. Ears of medium size and 
well carried; eyes prominent; muzzle wide with large nostrils. 12 
OBJECTIONS — Long, narrow, or lacking in masculine char- 
acter. 
NECK — Of medium length, full crest, of good thickness, strong, of 

masculine appearance 5 

SHOULDER — Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, coming up 

level with line of back 8 

OBJECTIONS — Shoulder too prominent, giving the appearance 
of weakness in heart girth, shoulder protruding above line 
of back. 
CHEST — Broad and deep, insuring constitution. Brisket prominent 

and coming well forward 12 

BACK AND RIBS — Back medium long, straight and level from 
withers to setting on of tail, moderately wide, with spring of 
ribs starting from the back bone, giving a rounding apearance, 

with ribs flat and fairly wide apart 14 

OBJECTIONS — Front ribs too straight, causing depression 
back of shoulders. Drop in back or loin below the top line. 

HIPS — Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well covered 3 

QUARTERS — Of good length, full, rounding, and level ; thighs wide 

and moderately full, deep 6 

OBJECTIONS — Prominent hooks, sunken quarters 
TAIL — Tail head strong and setting well forward, long and taper- 
ing to a full switch 2 

LEGS — Short, straight, squarely placed, medium bone 3 

OBJECTIONS — Hocks crooked ; legs placed too close together. 
RUDIMENTARIES — Large, wide apart, and placed well forward. 12 

Position of rudimentaries 6 

OBJECTIONS — Rudimentaries placed back on scrotum, or 
placed too close together, indicating tendency to transmit 
badly formed udders. 
HIDE — Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thickness, with a good 

lull coat of soft hair £ 



104 JUDGING CATTLE 

OBJECTIONS — Thin, papery skin, or wiry hair. 
CONDITION — Healthy ; moderate to liberal hesh evenly laid on ; 

glossy coat; animal presented in good bloom 10 

Total 100 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION — Strong, impressive, low set, and of 
good carriage. Weight 1800 lbs. to 2000 lbs. when mature and 
finished. 



DUTCH BELTED CATTLE. 



SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE DUTCH BELTED i2 

CATTLE ASSOCIATION — COW. 

U 

Body — Color black, with a clearly defined continuous white 
belt. The belt to be of medium width, begining be- 
hind the shoulder and extending nearly to the hips. . 8 
Head — Comparatively long and somewhat dishing; broad 
between the eyes. Poll prominent; muzzle fine; dark 

tongue 6 

Eyes — Black, full and mild. Horns long compared with 

their diameter 4 

Neck — Fine and moderately thin and should harmonize in 

symmetry with the head and shoulders 6 

Shoulders — Fine at top, becoming deep and broad as they 

extend backward and downward, with a low chest .... 4 
Barrel — Large and deep with well developed abdomen; ribs 

well rounded and free from fat 10 

Hips — Broad, and chine level, with full loin 10 

Pump — High, long and broad 6 

Hind Quarters — Long and deep, rear line in-curving. Tail 

long, slim, tapering to a full switch 8 

Legs — Short, clean, standing well apart 3 

Udder — Large, well developed front and rear. Teats of con- 
venient size and wide apart; mammary veins large, 

long, crooked, entering large orifices 20 

Escutcheon 2 

Hair — Fine and soft; skin of moderate thickness, of a rich 

dark or yellow color 3 

Quiet Disposition and free from excessive fat 4 

General Condition and apparent constitution 6 



Total 100 

FOE BULLS. 

The scale of points for males shall be the same as those 
given for females, except that "Udder" shall be omitted and 
the bull credited 10 points for size and wide spread placing 
of rudimentary teats, 5 points additional for development of 
shoulder, and 5 additional points for perfection of belt. 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOE CATTLE 105 

AYRSHIRE CATTLE. 

SCALE OF POINTS FOR AYRSHIRE BULL ADOPTED 1906. 

Head 16 

Forehead. Broad and clearly denned 2 

Horn. Strong at base, set wide apart inclining up- 
ward 1 

Face. Of medium length, clean cut, showing 

facial veins 2 

Muzzle. Broad and strong without coarseness. ... 1 

Nostrils. Large and open 2 

Jaws. Wide at the base and strong 1 

Eyes. Moderately large, full and bright li 

Ears. Of medium size and fine, carried alert 1 

Expression. Full of vigor, resolute and masculine 3 

Neck 10 

Of medium length, somewhat arched, large and 
strong in the muscles on top, inclined to flatness 
on sides, enlarging symmetrically toward the 
shoulders, throat clean and free from loose skin. 

Fore Quarters 15 

Shoulders. Strong, smoothly blending into body 
with good distance through from point to point 
and fine on top 3 

Chest. Low, deep and full between back and fore- 
legs 8 

Brisket. Deep, not too prominent and with very 
little dewlap 2 

Legs and Feet. Legs well apart, straight and short, 
shanks fine and smooth, joints firm, feet of me- 
dium size, round, solid and deep 2 

Body 18 

Back. Short and straight, chine strongly developed 
and open jointed 5 

Loin. Broad, strong and level 4 

Ribs. Long, broad, strong, well sprung and wide 
apart 4 

Abdomen. Large and deep, trimly held up with 
muscular development 4 

Flank. Thin and arching 1 

Hind Quarters 16 

Rump. Level, long from hooks to pin bones 5 

Hooks. Medium distance apart, proportionately 
narrower than in female, not rising above the 

level of the back 2 

Pin Bones. High, wide apart 2 

Thighs. Thin, long and wide apart 4 

Tail. Fine, long and set on level with back 1 

Legs and Feet. Legs straight, set well apart, 
shanks fine and smooth, feet medium size, 
round, solid and deep, not to cross in walking. . 2 
Scrotum. Well developed and strongly carried 3 



106 JUDGING CATTLE 

AYRSHIRE CATTLE — BULL 

Continued 

Rudimentaries, Veins, etc. Teats of uniform size 
squarely placed, wide apart and free from scrotum; 
veins long, large, tortuous with extensions entering 
large orifices; escutcheon pronounced and cover- 
ing a large surface 4 

Color. Red of any shade, brown, or these With white; 
mahogany and white, or white; each color distinct- 
ly defined 3 

Covering 6 

Skin. Medium thickness, mellow and elastic 3 

Hair. Soft and fine 2 

Secretions. Oily, of rich brown or yellow color. . . 1 

Style. Active, vigorous, showing strong masculine char- 
acter, temperament inclined to nervousness but 
not irritable or vicious . 5 

Weight. At maturity not less than 1,500 pounds 4 

Total 100 



SCALE OF POINTS FOR AYRSHIRE COW ADOPTED 1906. 

Head 10 

Forehead. Broad and clearly defined 1 

Horns. Wide set on and inclining upward 1 

Face. Of medium length, slightly dished; clean 

cut, showing veins 2 

Muzzle. Broad and strong without coarseness, nos- 
trils large 1 

Jaws. Wide at the base and strong l 

Eyes. Full and bright with placid expression. ... 3 

Ears. Of medium size and fine, carried alert 1 

Neck. Fine throughout, throat clean, neatly joined to 
head and shoulders, of good length, moderately thin, 

nearly free from loose skin, elegant in bearing 3 

Fore Quarters 10 

Shoulders. Light, good distance through from 
point to point but sharp at withers, smoothly 

blending into body 2 

Chest. Low, deep and full between back and fore- 
legs 8 

Brisket. Light 1 

Legs and Feet. Legs straight and short, well apart, 
shanks fine and smooth, joints firm; feet me- 
dium size, round, solid and deep 1 

Body 13 

Back. Strong and straight, chine lean, sharp and 

open-jointed 4 

Loin. Broad, strong and level 2 

Ribs. Long, broad, wide apart and well sprung. . . 3 
Abdomen. Capacious, deep, firmly held up with 

strong muscular development 3 

Flank. Thin and arching 1 



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Three Generations of Inherited Production. 



Kl(il) 



OFFICIAL STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 107 

AYRSHIRE CATTLE COW 

Continued 

Hind Quarters 11 

Rump. Wide, level, long from hooks to pin bones, 

a reasonable pelvic arch allowed 3 

Hooks. Wide apart and not projecting above back 

nor unduly overlaid with fat 2 

Pin Bones. High, wide apart 1 

Thighs. Thin, long and wide apart 2 

Tail. Pine, long and set on level with back 1 

Legs and Feet. Legs strong, short, straight, when 
viewed from behind and set well apart; shanks 
fine and smooth, joints firm, feet medium size, 
round, solid and deep 2 

Udder. Long, wide, deep but not pendulous, nor fleshy; 
firmly attached to the body, extending well up be- 
hind and far forward; quarters even; sole nearly 
level and not indented between teats, udder veins 
well developed and plainly visible 2 2 

Teats. Evenly placed, distance apart from side to side 
equal to half the breadth of udder, from back to 
front equal to one third the length; length 2V 2 to 
3 Vz inches, thickness in keeping with length, hang- 
ing perpendicular and not tapering 8 

Mammary Veins. Large, long, tortuous, branching and 

entering large orifices 5 

Escutcheon. Distinctly defined, spreading over thighs 

and extending well upward 2 

Color. Red of any shade, brown, or these with white; 
mahogany and white, or white; each color distinct- 
ly denned. (Brindle markings allowed but not de- 
sirable) 2 

Covering 6 

Skin. Medium thickness, mellow and elastic 3 

Hair. Soft and fine 2 

Secretions. Oily, of rich brown or yellow color. . . 1 

Style. Alert, vigorous, showing strong character; tem- 
perament inclined to nervousness but still docile. ... 4 

Weight. At maturity not less than one thousand pounds . . 4 

Total 100 



JUDGING SHEEP. 




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CHAPTER III. 

JUDGING SHEEP. 

152. Method of Examining Sheep. In examining sheep 
it is advisable to adopt a definite course of procedure so 
that nothing may be overlooked and each motion made 
to disclose something in regard to the merit or demerit 
of the sheep. In the show ring that contains as many as 
ten sheep in a class it is easy to see that the judge must 
work quickly as well as accurately. And there is nothing 
that will contribute to both of these like examining each 
part of the sheep in regular order. The best course to 
follow is perhaps to begin at the head, pressing down 
the lower lip with the finger and thumb so that the teeth 
may be seen and the age estimated. Then with the hands 
under the jaw look carefully over the head,, seeing that 
the eyes are all right, the head a good shape and no ap- 
pearance of horns in those breeds that are hornless, while 
in those that possess these, note that they spring clear 
from the head. Then pass to the neck, feeling with the 
hands the fullness of it, and in addition observing the 
length and the way it swells to meet the shoulder at the 
shoulder vein. Pass down to the brisket, putting one 
hand on the floor of the chest and the other at the top of 
the shoulder and in this way form an idea as to the depth 
of the sheep through these parts. Next note the shoulder, 
observing how it is covered with flesh along the side and 
top and also taking the girth of the spring of the ribs 
with the sheep. From the top of the shoulder, using one 
hand, follow the line of the back to the end of the body. 
By carefully handling these parts the fleshiness of the 
sheep or the way the ribs are covered and the straightness 



108 JUDGING SHEEP 

of the back are determined and at the same time the 
spring of the ribs is made apparent. The width of the 
loin should then be taken and also its covering and thick- 
ness. The width of the hips should next be observed, 
and turning to one side and using two hands the length 
from the hip to the end of the hind quarter should be 
made apparent between the two points. Then the width 
of the hind quarter and the manner in which it is carried 
back and the fullness should also be examined. Follow- 
ing the part towards the leg the development of the thigh 
on the outside requires examination, and then with the hand 
the twist should be firmly felt. 

153. Deception Due to Trimming. In this way the 
sheep has been thoroughly examined as to form, but it is 
to be remembered that the hands should be thoroughly 
relied on to discover all defects of form, and unless the 
sheep is carefully handled the examiner is very likely to 
be deceived. The wool of all show sheep and fat stock 
of the medium wool classes, is always trimmed, and the 
trimmer possessing skill can give any desired form to 
sheep, providing the wool is long enough and the sheep 
approaches somewhat towards the form which is being 
imitated. 

154. Estimating Age by the Teeth. The order of ap- 
pearance of the nippers or incisors in sheep is a fairly 
reliable method of telling their age. The sheep has eight 
permanent incisors in the lower jaw, and these appear in 
regular order in supplanting the milk teeth. The milk teeth 
can always be told from the permanent incisors by the fact 
that they are narrower. The permanent incisors are broad 
and widened considerably towards the top. The first or 
central pair of incisors appear when the sheep is slightly 
over one year old. The next pair, that is, one on each 
side of the central pair, appear. the following year, and 
that is when the sheep is two years old; the third pair 



Illustrations of Proper Methods of Handling Sheep in Judging Them 





^ " ■ v 




Looking at the face and head and 
feeling the fullness of the neck. 



With one hand on top and the 
other below estimate the depth of 
the chest. 




Notice the heart girth by the 
distance between the hands. 



With the hand perfectly flat note 
the levelness of the back, its firm- 
ness and covering. 



108a 



Illustrations of Proper Methods of Handling Sheep in Judging Them— Continued 




Taking the width of the loin ; also note the thickness. 



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Feeling the development in the 
leg of mutton. 



108b 



Illustrations of Proper Methods of Handling Sheep in Judging Them — Continued 




Manner and place of opening fleece to see the finest quality of wool. 




Illustration showing the proper method of holding the hand in 
examining sheep. It will be noticed that in this illustration those 
examining the sheep hold the fingers together in a sloping manner, in 
this way it is possible to feel the form of the sheep without disturbing 
or breaking the fleece. The very common method of sticking the 
fingers into the fleece makes holes in it which greatly annoy the 
shepherd. 



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FOE MUTTON AND WOOI 



109 



appear when the sheep is slightly over two years old, and 
the fourth pair when it is between four and five years old. 
This completes the number of incisors and a complete set 
always indicates that the sheep is between four and five 
years old. High feeding or forcing hastens the age indica- 
tions, so that the variations are often unnoticeable, es- 
pecially in show sheep or those imported from Great 
Britain, 

I. JUDGING SHEEP FOR MUTTON AND WOOD. 

In judging fat sheep it is necessary to consider the 
needs of the feeder of this class of stock, the demands of 
the butcher for lambs and mutton, the desires of the con- 
sumer and the requirements of the manufacturer of wool. 
These requisites must be merged together to arrive at a 
correct view of the whole. 

155. The Feeding Type That Gives the Best Gains. 

In considering the type of sheep which gives the best re- 
sults in the feed lot, we have only to have in view the 
type that gives us the greatest vigor, insuring an active 
digestion and the most constitution, so that nothing may 
upset the sheep in the rapid progress desired. In this 
connection it will be well to report the results of an ex- 
periment made at the Wisconsin Experiment Station by 
the writer. Two lots of lambs were selected; the one 
bred by the station showing in fleece and form a high 
degree of merit for grade sheep. These lambs were bred 
from high grade ewes and the rams had been selected at 
high prices for some years to make the best blend with 
the ewes. The lambs were very uniform as to type and 
they showed what might be called an unusual degree of 
merit for ordinary feeding lambs. To compare with these, 
some lambs native to northern Wisconsin showing the 
type common to that territory were put upon similar 
rations. The representatives of both these kinds of lambs, 



110 JUDGING SHEEP 

in addition to having the same kind of food, were kept 
under identically the same conditions, putting both lots 
of lambs in the fed lot at three cents a pound and taking 
them out at four cents at the end of the feeding period. 
The well bred lambs of good feeding type after paying 
for the feed that they ate, at current prices yielded a 
profit of $1.13 per head ; while those representative of the 
poor type being indiscriminately bred only yielded a profit 
of $ .60 per head. The lambs of the best type ate more 
food, but they made more than a corresponding gain, and 
the chief point should not be lost sight of, that the profit 
from each one of them was just twice as much as that 
from those being of inferior type. 

156. The Feeding Type Bringing Most at Maturity. 

In the selection of feeding lambs the feeder has to keep 
in view the fact that there is most demand for the lamb 
that when fat weighs about 80 pounds. Such a lamb has 
the quickest sale at the highest price per pound. This 
type is one that is not too heavy boned and large framed, 
but such as require only a medium amount of flesh to 
make the carcass smooth and plump at the weight in- 
dicated. It is the low set, thick type that possesses these 
qualities to the highest degree. To secure the greatest 
profit in feeding it is desirable to have the gain made as 
rapidly as possible. The younger the animal the cheaper 
the cost of gain, and it is that feature that makes early 
maturity such an important consideration in the different 
classes of stock. The market favors a lamb of the weight 
mentioned, because as a rule such usually dress better and 
the cuts sell better because lighter. 






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The three photos on the right hand show a sheep 
of a bad feeding type. Note narrowness of face, 
shallowness of chest, with length of leg in both 
front and side view, while the hind view shows 
thinness of leg of mutton. The three photos on 
the left show a good feeding type in breadth of 
face, depth and width of chest, spring of rib, 
squareness of form throughout and fullness of leg 
of mutton. The sheep used for these illustrations 
were selected from the lots experimented with at 
the Wisconsin station and referred to in para- 
graph 155. 



110b 



FOE MUTTON AND WOOL 



ill 



157. The Type Desired by the Butcher. If we were 
to consider only the things that have the most importance 
in the view of the butcher we would have a very queerly 
formed sheep presented to us. The butcher is very de- 
sirous of obtaining the greatest percentage of valuable 
cuts, consequently the different parts of a lamb from a 
butcher's point of view show a wide variation from the 
feeder's and breeder's ideal. In the lamb that is ideal 
from a butcher's standpoint, it would not be necessary to 
have any neck, chest, digestive apparatus or leg. As may 
be seen from the illustration herewith submitted, the neck 
has a value of only one cent per pound, the shoulder is 
two cents and the shanks the same. The rib running 
from the point of the shoulder to the loin has a value of 
nine cents per pound, and the same is true of the loin; 
while the leg of mutton has the highest value per pound, 
as that is quoted at ten cents. The breast and chest have 
the very low value of two cents per pound. It is very 
evident from these facts that the back, loin and the leg 
are the three divisions that are most prized in the lambs 
that would be ideal from the butcher's standpoint. 

158. Quality. After the form of the sheep has been 
carefully examined the quality should be noticed. This 
means the cleanness of the bone, fineness of the skin and 
the nature of the hair which covers the face and legs. 
These are important features in either breeding or fat 
sheep. It is perhaps the most valuable from the butcher's 
standpoint, because the waste is less from a sheep of 
good quality than it is from one that is inferior. The 
range in the percentage of dressed weight in lambs w,ill 
vary from 50 per cent to 60 per cent of their live weight, 
so that it will be understood that quality is an important 
factor from the butcher's standpoint, where the profit 
from the carcass is largely determined by the dressed 
weight returns. 



112 JUDGING 

159. The Importance of Condition. Not only should 
a lamb be well developed in the parts indicated to satisfy 
the butcher, but the flesh should be uniformly deep over 
the parts ; this is a factor in giving a high percentage of 
dressed weight which adds greatly to the profit of the 
carcass. While it is very desirable that the lamb should 
weigh about 80 pounds, it is even more so that the con- 
dition should be equally satisfactory to produce the high- 
est price. As indicating the progress of the lambs in the 
feed lot in this particular it would perhaps be advisable 
to follow them through their development. 

When put in the feed lot under proper conditions, 
lambs will usually begin to show the influence of good 
feeding at the end of the third or fourth week. During 
this time they seem to be simply getting into good con- 
dition to put on flesh, though it appears that some fat is 
being deposited internally. Towards the end of that 
cime many of the lambs may be noticed standing leisurely 
in the sun iu a partially stretched posture. This pose in 
the lambs is a delight to the shepherd. The fattening 
process seems to extend from the internal regions, and is 
first in evidence at the tail. It then passes along the back 
over the shoulder and reaches the neck ; from this line it 
seems to extend down the sides and over the breast in 
front. There are six main points at which its extension 
seems most in evidence — at the tail, middle of the back, 
the neck, the flank, the purse and the breast, 

160. Judging Condition. Judges of condition handle 
these different points and seem to arrive at the same con- 
clusions from continued practice in observing the develop- 
ment of any one of them, although a critical examination 
will reveal that sheep sometimes fatten unevenly and may 
be good in one or more of these points and comparatively 
deficient in others. By feeling the tail head some will 
form their opinion as to the degree to which the lamb 




Hampshire Yearling Ram. Winner of first prize at English Royal Show 
in 19 Is. Photo by Parson. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE HAMPSHIRE SHEEP. 

THIS BREED, finding its name from its native district in England is strong 
framed with those features which denote constitution, strikingly shown. 
The head is strong and somewhat large with prominent nose and ear inclined 
to be thick and large, yet there should not be any undue coarseness in these 
parts. The neck should be strong and deep from head to shoulder, the chest 
very deep and wide. The back strong with width and proper covering. The 
hind quarter should be characterized by fullness both before and below. In 
general the frame is strong, lengthy and close to the ground with the other 
attributes which indicate vigor. The wool of the fleece is somewhat short, 
dense and strong in fiber. Ruggedness and weight of form are desirable yet 
these should be secured if possible without extreme coarseness of form or 
fleece. The early development of the lambs of this breed is a leading char- 
acteristic and should be recognized, consequently a heavy weight at an early 
age but not at the expense of quality and breed type is very desirable. See 
official scale of points, page 132. 



112a 




Undefeated Oxford ram shown 
Pewankee, Wis. 



in 1911 by Geo. McKerrow & Son. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE OXFORD DOWN SHEER 

THIS BREED originated in the county of Oxford, England, and the type 
was evolved by the use of the Cotswold and Hampshire. The origin of 
the type is shown somewhat in the modern representatives for the scale, sub- 
stance and back which they possess reflect the qualities of the long wool line, 
while the dark face, fleece characteristics and quality of structure are attri- 
butable to the Down ancestry. The face and markings are either gray or 
brown. The head of the Oxford differs somewhat from the Shropshire in 
being longer and not so densely wooled past the eye, while the ear is slightly 
larger and longer. The form is square in general appearance, wider than in 
that of the other Down breeds and the hind quarter square on top and below 
carrying flesh close to the hocks. The fleece is heavy, moderately open and 
the fiber is long and strong. When mature they are one of the heaviest of 
the Down breeds, being large in size and strong in frame. See official scale 
of points, page 134. 



112b 



FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 113 

is fat. Others are satisfied with feeling the back. Many 
after feeling the tail, grasp the neck and base their 
opinion on the fullness of that part. The flank and breast 
are often used for further assistance, and some butchers 
estimate condition by the fullness of the purse. At any 
of these points, more especially the back, the covering 
should be such in the prime lamb as to prevent feeling 
the sharp projection of backbone. In a lamb that is com- 
pletely fattened there is a distinct trough or groove run- 
ning from the tail to the shoulders and the covering of 
flesh should extend well down over the sides, without 
softness due to excessive fat or oily tissue. All lambs do 
not fatten as smoothly or as uniformly as herein indicated. 
In most lambs, however, the worst defect is bareness of 
the loin and lightness in the hind quarters. With these 
parts well covered and fully developed, a rather sharp 
shoulder and peaked brisket will be overlooked. Not 
only should the flesh be thick over the valuable cuts, but 
it should be firm. Very often it will be found that soft 
rough patches will be present about the head of the tail, 
owing to the depositing of too much soft flesh on thb 
back, which may slip from there on the over ripe lamb 
and gather at the flank or along the sides in long soft 
rolls. 

161. The Importance of Dressed Weight. In consider- 
ing this subject still further from the butcher's point of 
view, there is the question of quality which materially 
affects the percentage of the dressed meat obtained. This 
in addition to being largely influenced by the condition 
of the sheep, is perhaps most influenced by the fineness 
of the bone, thickness of the pelt and other features, 
which all have a marked influence on the profit from the 
butcher 's standpoint. In this connection to show how im- 
portant it is to have the dressed weight yield a large per- 



:114 JUDGING SHEEP 

centage of valuable cuts, it will be interesting to quote 
some results obtained from an experiment at the Iowa 
Station under direction of Professor Curtiss. He found 
in a lot of ten pure bred Oxford lambs marketed by the 
Iowa Experiment Station, that the leg cuts constituted 
31.87 per cent of the whole carcass by weight and sold 
for 42.63 per cent of the total value. The leg, rib and 
loin cuts together aggregated 73.74 per cent of the total 
weight and sold for 92 per cent of the total. 

162. Consideration of the Consumer. The butcher 
and the consumer are very similar in their demands, but 
there are a few points that are of peculiar importance to 
the latter, and among these may be mentioned the char- 
acter of the flesh. A clear distinction should be drawn 
between flesh and fat, or, as it may be otherwise stated, 
between muscle and lean meat and tallow. The ideal 
sheep from the consumer's standpoint is one that carries 
a large proportion of flesh or lean meat with but a limited 
quantity of fat. In live sheep this is indicated by a firm, 
even covering over the parts of the body. The flesh has 
a firm but springy touch and is smooth over all regions, 
especially thick where it has the highest value. The con- 
sumer asserts his preference for another feature and that 
is a marked desire for lamb in contrast to matured sheep, 
owing to the desirability of small cuts and the supposi- 
tion that lamb is more tender than older sheep. 

163. The Qualities of the Fleece. In estimating the 
worth of a sheep or judging it, not only is it fair to con- 
sider the demands of the feeder, the butcher and the con- 
sumer, but with these we must include the qualities de- 
sired by the wool manufacturer. Though the returns 
from the fleece are not very large, yet the sheep breeder 
must consider them so that the ultimate profit may be as 
great as possible. To arrive at a correct understanding 



FOB MUTTON AND WOOL 115 

in regard to this, the examiner must follow the best 
method of examination and also know in detail the mar- 
ket requirements for wool. 

164. Examining the Fleece. In examining.and valuing 
the fleece the chief points to consider are the quantity, 
quality and the condition. In grouping the qualities un- 
der these three divisions we can include the interests of 
those directly concerned on the various products coming 
from sheep, on the market. The best method of arriv- 
ing at the nature of a fleece is to open it first just over 
the shoulder. It is in this region that the finest and the 
soundest wool of the fleece is found. By using the hands 
in a flat position instead of sticking the end of the fingers 
into the wool the fleece may be parted in a more satis- 
factory manner. After looking at the wool and skin in 
this region, the thigh should be the next place of ex- 
amination, for here grows the poorest and coarsest wool 
of the whole fleece. Then the covering of the wool on 
the belly also demands notice, for very often sheep are 
quite poor in this region, making the wool light and in- 
dicating a lack of constitution. By examining the fleece 
in these three parts a fair estimate may be made of its 
qualities. 

165. Quantity of Fleece. The chief factors which de- 
termine the quantity are the length, density and even- 
ness of both of these over all parts. 

166. Density. The density of the fleece means the 
closeness of the fibers. Technically it means the number 
of fibers that grow on a square inch. Density is not only 
of value to secure a heavy fleece, but from the breeder's 
point of view its chief importance lies in the fact that it 
is more protection to the sheep than a fleece that is open. 
Not only is a sheep with a loose open fleece more liable 
to contract a cold from exposure to rain or wind but it 
is also more apt to yield a dirty fleece, as the loose fleece 
catches the dirt and dust and pieces of hay and straw. 
From the shepherd's point of view the denseness of the* 



116 JUDGING SHEEP 

fleece is its leading feature, for it will be found that those 
animals with dense close fleeces are less subject to such 
diseases as catarrh, running: at the nose or scouring. 
When a sheep experiences a chill, it at once affects the 
circulation and sends the blood to the internal organs, and 
inflammation or scouring results. This is why sheep that 
have open fleeces are more subject to such diseases than 
those that have dense fleeces. Wool is one of the best 
non-conductors of heat that we have and when it is on 
a sheep in the form of a dense fleece, it gives them the 
greatest possible protection from exposure. Further- 
more, if the fleece is not dense, it is almost impossible for 
the fiber to be sound — that is, free from weak spots. When 
a sheep has been badly chilled or has become sick in any 
way so as to cause the pores of the skin to contract, a 
break or shrinkage occurs in the fiber at that point. The 
wool on a sheep grows from a small sac in the skin and 
it passes away from the skin through a small opening 
which may be easily contracted or expanded, according 
to different influences. The influences are various, and 
for that reason it is important that the sheep be covered 
with a fleece that is so dense as not to be affected much 
by external conditions. 

167. Length of Staple. The length of the staple is an 
important feature, both from a commercial point of view 
and from the shepherd's standpoint. Wools are generally 
known as short-stapled or the clothing or carding wools, 
which are used for woolen clothes, or long-stapled or 
combing wools, which are used for worsted clothes. The 
combing wools include the Lincoln, Leicester, Cotswold, 
Oxford, Romney Marsh and Black Face or Highland. 
The Downs (Southdown, Hampshire, Suffolk, Shropshire) 
— and the Cheviot and the Merinos usually produce cloth- 
ing wool though some individuals and some flocks pro- 
duce wool of ample length for combing. The manufac- 
turer of woolens desires a short stapled wool, for such a 
wool has better felting qualities and usually more serra- 





Two photographs of tho same sheep— the upper before trimming and the 
lower after trimming. This illustrates the necessity of careful hand- 
ling of sheep to determine the form. 



116a 








Five Southdown wethers that were first prize pen of lambs at the 
International Live Stock Exposition in 1910. 




116b 



Photographs of sheep teeth, showing changes that occur in the 
order of appearance of the incisors. The photo on the upper left 
hand shows a lamb's mouth with all temporary incisors. The upper 
right hand photograph shows mouth of a sheep about one year old, with 
the first pair of permanent incisors and the temporary incisors back 
of them. The photo in the lower left hand corner shows the mouth 
of a sheep about two years old, with two pairs of permanent incisors 
appearing. The photograph in the center below shows the mouth of a 
three year old sheep, with three pairs of permanent incisors. The lower 
right hand illustration is a photograph of a sheep's mouth when four 
and a half to five years old. The incisors are all permanent, worn 
down some and more sloping than the others. 



FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 117 

tions or spirals than the long wools. In manufacturing 
woolen into yarns the fibers are transversely disposed 
to the axis or length of the thread. In yarns of this 
nature this feature is termed "pile." The points pro- 
jecting from the center should be numerous, so that in 
felting the fabric unites and also when the cloth comes 
to be finished it will appear on top like short fur (Royal 
Agricultural Society Transactions, Vol. II, Second 
Series). On the other hand, in worsted goods classes, comb- 
ing, clothing, and delaine, the object is to stretch the fibers 
and lay them parallel with each other, and this produces a 
yarn, even, strong, and with a smooth surface. In this 
process of manufacture, it is easy to see that the length 
and strength of a fiber includes its most valuable char- 
acteristics. 

168. Quality of Fleece. As in most other instances 
it is rare to find quality and quantity associated. As a 
general rule it will be found that the short wooled sheep 
have the finest quality of wool. In judging of the qual- 
ity, it should be noted again that the finest wool occurs 
just over the heart and on the belly, while the coarsest 
grows on the thigh. 

169. Softness. By pressing the fleece with the hand 
the softness of it can readily be approximated. This 
feature is opposed to harshness. The softness of the fleece 
not only depends greatly on the management, but also on 
the nature of the food and the soil. In reference to the 
foods, those that are rich in sulphur have been observed 
to have the most influence on the softness of the wool. 
It is interesting to know that in one hundred pounds of 
wool there is at least five pounds of sulphur, and it seems 
that the abundance of this in the food, has an effect on 
this feature of softness in the fleece. It is well known 
that soil has a strong influence on the properties of wool, 
especially in regard to its softness. Clay soils are con- 
sidered to produce the softest wool, of the best lustre and 
next to these ranks sandy soils, and lastly, those of the 



118 JUDGING SHEEP 

nature of limestone. Chalky soils have been noted for 
the deterioration they produce in the softness of the wool. 
Harshness of the fleece is generally due to the absence of 
yolk which has resulted from ill health on the part of the 
sheep or from exposure. Considering the nature of the 
fiber of wool, it is easy to understand how anything, such 
as ill health or exposure which effects the secretion of 
yolk is certain to make the wool harsh. A fiber of wool 
is covered with a series of scales which overlap in a sim- 
ilar manner to the shingles on a roof. When the secre- 
tion of yolk is abundant, these scales fit it closely to the 
fiber, but when the secretion of yolk is stopped from any 
injurious cause, the scales stand out from the fiber very 
similar to warped shingles on a roof. The result of this 
is that the fibers lock and when you feel the fleece that 
has fibers of this nature they seem to grate each other 
very similarly to file shavings. The wool is harsh and 
dry and when pressed it gives that grating feeling which 
is also characteristic of an unhealthy fleece. It is this 
that generally produces what is known as a catted fleece. 

170. Crimp. All wool is more or. less crimped, possess- 
ing what are sometimes called spirals. The most im- 
portant point in regard to the crimp is that it should be 
regular and the folds should not be thrown on each other. 
Regularity in the crimp indicates that the fiber is sound 
from end to end, but if in some places the crimp is short 
and close, and in others long and wavy, it usually indi- 
cates that where this difference occurs, there is an un- 
sound spot in the fiber. It shows that the growth has 
been irregular and there is a close relation between the 
fineness of the fiber and the nature of the crimp. When 
the crimp is fine and close almost invariably the fiber will 
be found to be of fine quality. In all coarse wool it should 
be noted that crimp is open and wavy. In opening a 
fleece and looking at it, the crimp should always be noted, 
for from it an estimate may be made, both as to the 
soundness and fineness of it. 




A group of Cotswold rams shown in 1911 by F. W. Harding, 
"Waukesha, Wis. These rams show the desirable qualities of their 
breed in long forelocks, upstanding and full fronts, long, level backs 
and heavy fleeces. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE COTSWOLD SHEEP. 

*pHIS BREED which is native to the Cotswold hills in Gloucestershire, 
■ England, is one of very ancient origin and is one of those breeds which 
show a high order of style and finish and uniformity, due to the long con- 
tinued breeding for a type. The form is remarkably square, upstanding and 
stylish, the latter being contributed to in no small degree by a beautiful tuft 
of wool growing from the forehead and falling luxuriantly over the face. 
The head is somewhat long in the face and may be white or slightly mixed 
with gray. The forelock is full and long, the ear small, the neck of sufficient 
length to uphold the head with style. The characteristic form of the body 
is long, level and wide with a strong back. The hind quarter comes up 
square and should have sufficient fullness below. The fleece owing to its 
length is usually somewhat open but it possesses a long, strong fiber that 
yields heavy. The fleece most desired, while wavy, parts into locks showing 
a clear pink skin free from dark spots. The popularity of the breed lies 
chiefly in their large yield of wool and mutton, and these features should be 
leading characteristics yet they should also be associated with quality in all 
the essentials. See official scale of points, page 135. 



118a 




Border Leicester ram, Favorite, winner first prize at Highland and 
Agricultural Society, Dumfries, Scotland, 1895. Bred by and property 
of Andrew Smith, Longniddry, Hadington, Scotland. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE LEICESTER SHEER 

THIS BREED which was one of the first to be established originated in 
Leicestershire, England. The first improver, Robert Bakewell, 1726-1795, 
sought chiefly to increase the early maturity of this breed and lessen the size 
of the bone and increase the weight of flesh. The characteristics secured at 
that early time are maintained in the modern representative. The face is 
bare and pure white, body square, fore quarters especially full with hind 
quarters peculiarly rounded on top. There are usually many evidences of 
quality as seen in the fine bone and the further fact that the fiber of the 
fleece is usually remarkably fine considering its length. The marked aptitude 
of the representatives of this breed to fatten results in remarkable backs 
but frequently the same aptitude produces a soft and uneven covering. The 
Border Leicester, originating from an infusion of Cheviot blood, is generally 
stronger in bone and more vigorous than the English type. The wool of the 
fleece is lustrous, five or six inches long and very soft though frequently too 
open and sometimes absent on the belly. 



HSb 



FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 119 

• 171. Soundness. The soundness of the fiber is of much 
importance in the process of manufacturing woolens. 
The fleece of unsound fibers will bring four or five cents 
less than one that is strong throughout. To test the sound- 
ness of a fiber, in addition to knowing it by the character 
of the crimp, a small lock of wool is taken between the 
fingers and stretched evenly and gently until the un- 
soundness or the strength becomes apparent. The wool 
may break at the bottom, having what is called "weak 
bottoms," or it may have "weak middles" or "weak 
tops," according to the location of the unsoundness. 
Since the crimp is more open at a weak place it is de- 
sirable to have it even throughout the length of the fiber. 

172. Condition. The condition of the fleece refers 
more to its purity, lustre, brightness and the quantity 
and character of the yolk. The condition of a fleece re- 
sults mostly from correct breeding and proper manage- 
ment. 

173. Purity. Purity refers to the freedom of the 
fleece from dead fibers and foreign matter. In fleeces 
that are grown on sheep that are exposed to conditions 
unfavorable to thrift, there is a natural tendency for the 
fleece to revert to its original state ; that is, fibers of hair 
begin to appear in it and these take the place of the wool. 
Very often in fleeces grown by sheep that have been ex- 
posed there will be found a great many dead fibers which 
are technically spoken of as "kemp." These dead fibers 
are very injurious to the fleece from the commercial 
standpoint, because they do not absorb dyes, and in any 
cloth that is made from such wool these dead fibers will 
retain the white and hard appearance that they had in 
the fleece. 

174. Lustre. This refers to the glistening appearance 
of the fiber when held to the light. This is independent 
of the amount of yolk, and it is also quite distinct from 
the brightness of the fiber. Although yolk in a fleece 
may add to the lustre of the fiber, yet all lustrous wools 



120 JUDGING SHEEP 

have this characteristic independent of the amount of 
yolk that is present. The chief advantage from a com- 
mercial standpoint that attaches itself to lustrous wools 
is that they more readily take delicate dyes. Wools in 
the market are known as lustrous or dull, according to 
the appearance of the fiber. The lustrous fiber has the 
appearance of having been varnished, while a dull one 
does not show the least tendency to glisten when held in 
the light. 

175. Brightness. Brightness is quite distinct from 
lustre, as it refers altogether to the color of the wool. In 
the market wools are said to be bright or dark as they 
vary in this characteristic. The bright wool is one that 
has a clear white color, while the dark wool is one that 
has become discolored from the soil on which the sheep 
has ranged, or some similar source. Brightness is always 
characteristic of domestic wool and discoloration is a 
feature of all territory wools. 

176. Yolk. This is the grease or oil that is naturally 
secreted by the skin. As before indicated the yolk in the 
fleece is an indication of the healthiness of the sheep. 
The yolk is secreted in the skin, but it passes down 
through the fiber and finds an outlet at the end of the 
fiber. If you will notice sheep on certain days when the 
weather is close and the sheep are likely sweating, the 
yolk seems to accumulate on the end of the fiber, and if 
you were to run your hand over the fleece at that time 
you would find it became quite oily. The yolk apparently 
comes out at the end of the fibers and works back into the 
fleece. In some flocks the quantity of yolk has been in- 
creased and encouraged by selection in breeding, so that 
heavy fleeces might be obtained. The ordinary fleece in 
which yolk is abundant in proper quantity will lose near- 
ly one-third through washing it in hot water. This 
grease is of no value to the manufacturer and it repre- 
sents a direct loss to him when it is in the fleece in very 
large quantities. The feeding and the management un- 




A champion Southdown ram shown 
Mantua, Ohio. 



by Charles Leet & Son, 



DESCRIPTION OF THE SOUTHDOWN SHEEP. 

THIS BREED, which is one of the oldest and purest, originated on the 
Downs of Sussex in England and they represent a uniformity of type for 
mutton purposes which may be accepted as a model of mutton form. The 
type shown by this breed is very symmetrical, compact and close to the 
ground and there is a marked refinement in every feature ; the general struc- 
ture being of fine quality while every part strongly reflects the same char- 
acteristic. The head is moderate in size, short and clearly defined in its 
lineaments. The forehead should be covered with wool and the cheeks also 
but this usually does not join forward of the eye. There is a complete absence 
of horns, with small pointed ears, the face is some shade of brown or gray 
tint and the same markings should prevail on the legs. The neck is very 
short and straight, the breast broad and full, the back is straight, well cov- 
ered and tightly knit, while the loin is wide, straight and smooth. The gen- 
eral form of the body shows much depth and width with a trimness charac- 
teristic of every region. The hips while markedly wide are not prominent, the 
hind quarter fills out square and the twist and ihigh are low and full. The 
fleece is characterized more by its fineness and density rather than the weight 
of the wool which it yields as it is generally medium in length and compar- 
atively free from yolk. A marked uniformity in the quality of the wool should 
be in evidence ; that over the shoulder and that which covers the thigh and 
other parts being very even in quality. The best types of this breed may be 
accepted as a model form for the block. See official scale of points, page 130. 



120a 




Shropshire ram, Ringleader, a frequent prize winner and stock ram 
at the head of the Altamont flock, ov:ned by Dr. G. Howard Davidson, 
Millbrook, N. Y. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE SHROPSHIRE SHEEP. 

THIS BREED having its home in the Downs of England is very symmetrical 
and stylish in form. The head should show refinement in every feature 
with moderate length. A characteristic attribute is for it to be closely covered 
with wool, the cap between the ears being dense, running to the bridge of 
the nose and joining that which covers the cheek and lower part of the head. 
The ears should be far apart, pointed and moderate in thickness and preferably 
covered to the tip with fine curly wool. There should not be the least evi- 
dence of horns as the places where these would appear should be covered 
with wool. The neck should be nicely attached and full and of sufficient 
length to carry the head with peculiar style. The body to possess this char- 
acteristic smoothness and symmetry must be somewhat circular and round 
ribbed. The back should be straight, strong and knit so that the handling of 
this part shows it to be smooth and evenly covered. The loin must be wide 
and hips not prominent and the quarters lengthy and deep, the width from 
the loin and hips should be carried out to the tail head and the fullness 
characteristic of this part should be maintained on the outside of the thigh 
and on the inside as well, making the twist not only deep but plump with 
flesh. The fleece should be strong and fine in fiber with all the density pos- 
sible. From the bridge of the nose to the fetlock as well as along the belly, 
a dense covering of wool is desirable. In opening the fleece the fibers, which 
are generally about three inches long, should part readily, show clear white 
in strong contrast to the pink skin. About the ears or top of the head there 
should be no patches of black fiber nor should these appear distributed any- 
where in the fleece. The characteristic markings for the face and legs are 
a rich dark brown in color. The best type of this breed shows an unusual 
combination of quality and quantity of both wool and mutton. See officii 
rcale of points, page 131. 



120b 



FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 121 

doubtedly influence the amount of yolk. Feeding sheep 
foods that are rich in oils seems to further the secretion 
of grease and especially in feeding with such rations as 
are generally given to fattening sheep, the quantity of 
yolk seems to increase. In fattening lambs at the Wis- 
consin Station it was found that the lambs which re- 
ceived grain from birth invariably sheared heavier fleeces 
than those that had grain only during the latter three 
months of fattening. By washing samples from the fleece 
of these sheep it was determined that the increased 
weight of the fleece was almost altogether due to the 
increased amount of yolk which the grain-fed lambs se- 
creted. The presence of yolk in proper quantities is of 
chief importance, because the fleece becomes soft through 
it, and is made more compact, thereby keeping bright 
and clean in condition. Furthermore, it is a safe index 
of the thriftiness in the sheep, though if present in ex- 
cessive quantities and accumulated in flakes it indicates 
undue pampering or unthriftiness due to overfeeding. 

177. Domestic Wool. There are four main kinds of 
wool, some of which are divided into classes and grades 
as explained later. These are what is known as domestic 
wool, territory wool, blanket wool and carpet wool. Do- 
mestic wools are clean and bright. Wool of this kind 
comes from fleeces that are grown under what might be 
termed domesticated conditions, that is — sheep are given 
shelter, fed well and otherwise have good management, 
as is given on farms in contrast to ranches of former 
days. This results in a clean, bright wool which the 
market classifies as domestic wool. 

178. Territory Wool. In contrast to this is the ter- 
ritory wool. This wool is called territory wool simply 
because it is dirty or it is discolored. It is wool that 
comes from sheep managed and cared for in a way very 
similar to that which is common in the range states. 
The sheep have run out the year round; the fleeces 
carry a large amount of sand and dirt which raises the 



122 JUDGING SHEEP 

rate of shrinkage when the wool is scoured by the manu- 
facturer. The various types of soils have peculiar effects 
as a result of contact with the wool. 

179. Blanket Wool. The poorest kinds of wool that 
go to the market are known as carpet wool and blanket 
wool. The worst feature connected with this kind of 
wool is the presence of kemp or the dead fibers previous- 
ly mentioned. On account of thece not freely absorbing 
the dyes, this wool has to be manufactured into carpets 
and blankets. When the nature of the fleece of the 
original sheep is understood so that the improvement 
that has been made through breeding for many years 
becomes apparent, it can easily be seen that where 
sheep are neglected the tendency is for their fleece to 
revert to the original condition. In this condition the 
fleece was made up of an external covering of hairs and 
beneath it an undergrowth of very finely fibered wool. 
Domestication by man has completely removed the hair 
and gives us a fine fleece of wool which exists on well 
bred sheep today. Neglect on the part of the breeder 
will surely result in the sheep reverting to the kind of 
fleece that it at one time possessed. 

180. Classification of Wool. The wools according to 
their length and strength are divided into three classes, 
clothing, combing and delaine. Clothing is short, being 
about two inches, or it is longer and weak. If the fiber 
of a fleece is four inches long, it would, on its length, be 
classified as combing wool, but if that fiber has a weak 
spot in it where it readily breaks it passes from the 
combing class into the clothing class and drops two or 
more cents on the pound in price. Then there is- the 
delaine class, which is a fine wool from two and one-half 
to three or more inches long in fiber. The other class is 
a combing, which is a strong wool over two and three- 
quarter inches long. This classification, it will be seen, 
depends altogether on the length and strength of the 
wool. The delaine wools have extra fineness combined 




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122a 




A prize winning Lincoln ram. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE LINCOLN SHEEP. 

*|*HIS BREED which originated in Lincolnshire, England, vies with the Cots- 
■ wold for the position of being considered the largest of the long wooled 
breeds. The form is very squarely built and when mature the representa- 
tives of this breed are very heavy. The face is pure white,' somewhat long 
and surmounted by a tuft of wool. The body is exceedingly full in its 
development and marked specially by a very wide, level and deep fleshed 
back, while the hind quarters are usually well developed, being very square 
in form. The wool is long in fiber, very strong, frequently inclined to be 
coarse because of this, but it is particularly lustrous and parts easily in 
flakes. In yield of mutton and wool this breed occupies a foremost position. 



122b 



FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 123 

with sufficient length for combing. They are used for 
making the finest kinds of cloth. 

The combing wool must in the first place be strong to 
stand the process of combing, and with that the greatest 
length is desired. In further reference to the quality of 
the wool, in examining a fleece, it should be noticed that 
the length and the density are even over all parts. Con- 
sidering first the length, the fleece should be examined 
at the brisket, on top of the back, along the side on the 
thigh and on the belly. As a rule sheep fitted for show 
are trimmed in such a way that the wool in front of the 
brisket is much longer than that on top of the back, and 
the same may be said of that on the sides. In an un- 
trimmed sheep, on which the wool has grown naturally, 
it will be found that there is a natural variation in the 
length of the fiber on different parts of the body. The 
wool on the brisket will invariably be found to be longer 
than that on the top or in most other parts. The density 
of the fleece may be determined by the feel of it under 
the hand. If the fleece feels firm and it seems to be com- 
pact, it is dense and will weigh heavier. 

181. Commercial Grades. According to the fineness 
of fiber, or, in other words, the size of it, fleeces classed 
as either combing or clothing are assigned to one of the 
following grades which are named in order, beginning 
with the finest, XX, fine, half-blood, three-eighths, quar- 
ter-blood and braid or low quarter. This grading does 
not apply to the delaine class which includes only woob 
equal or superior in fineness to half-blood. There might 
be a three-eighths or quarter-blood clothing, but prac- 
tically all wools of that coarseness have length enough 
to place them in the combing class. While the above 
grading is a standard one, varying sets of terms are ap- 
plied to wools from different parts of the country. 



124 JUDGING SHEEP 



SCALE OF POINTS FOB FINE WOOLED SHEEP. *> 

GENERAL. APPEARANCE: | 8 

Form, level, deep, stylish, round rather than square. . 8 

Quality, clean, tine bone; silky hair; fine skin 6 

HEAD AND NECK: 

Muzzle, fine: broad wrinkly nose; pure white. ...... 1 

Eyes, large, clear, placid 1 

Face, wrinkly, covered with soft, velvety coat 1 

Forehead, broad, full 1 

Ears, soft, thick, velvety 1 

Neck, ishort, muscular, well set on shoulders 1 

FORE QUARTERS: 

Shoulder, strong, being deep and broad 4 

Brisket, projecting forward, breast wide 1 

Legs, straight, short, wide apart; shank smooth and 

fine 2 

BODY: 

Chest, deep, full, indicating constitution 10 

Back, level, long; round ribbed 4 

IiOin, wide, level 4 

Flank, low, making underline straight 2 

HIND QUARTERS: 

Hips, far apart, level, smooth 2 

Rump, long, level, wide 4 

Legs, straight, short, strong; shank smooth, fine 2 

WOOL: 

Quantity, long, dense, even covering, especially over 

crown, cheek, armpit, hind legs and belly 15 

Quality, fine fibre, crimp close, regular; even quality 

including tops of folds 15 

Condition, bright, lustrous, sound, pure, soft, even dis- 
tribution of yolk, with even surface to fleece 15 

Total 100 




Cheviot ram, Sandy Walker ; winner of first prize at Edinburgh, 
Morpeth, and the H. and A. S. Show, Dumfries, 1895. Bred by and 
property of John Elliott, Hindhope, Jedburgh, Scotland. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE CHEVIOT SHEEP. 

THIS BREED, a native of the Cheviot mountains and the most common 
sheep of Scotch borders, has been known on the hills of Scotland for 
more than 200 years. To thrive under the conditions of their nativity they 
must naturally possess unusual activity with strong constitutions. The mod- 
ern type exemplifies this fact as it is that of a sheep blocky in body and 
deep, with short legs. The face is bare of wool from the ears forward with- 
out any appearance of horns and pure white, as on all other regions of the 
body excepting the immediate vicinity of the nostrils and the hoofs which 
should be black. Being hardy, active and prolific, they have a pertness in 
look, and activity in movement which is thoroughly characteristic of the 
breed. The manner of the sheep is characterized by alertness added to further 
by a keen face, bright eye and active, fine ears. The chest is deep with the 
floor of it close to the ground, the girth full, the back rather short but strong, 
With a deep rib, the hind quarter is low set but well developed from the mut- 
ton standpoint. The fleece should be dense and fine in texture. The breeders 
are particularly careful that the quality of the fleece should be even through- 
out and free from kemp or dead hairs and especially fill the hand well. As 
constitution is eminently desirable in these sheep the evidences of this should 
be strikingly shown in type and temperament. See official scale of points, 
page 138. 



124a 




A Dorset ram shown in 1911 by Nash Bros., Tipton, Ind. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE DORSET SHEEP. 

ORIGINALLY a mountain breed of Dorsetshire and Sommersetshire of the 
south of England, this breed has been modified considerably in type 
during late years and the modern representative now shows a form that 
is long, round-bodied and yet compactly built. 

Standard of excellence and scale of points of the Dorset sheep, adopted by 
the Continential Dorset Association. — Head neat, face white, nostrils large, 
well covered on crown and around jaws with wool, 5 ; horns, small and grace- 
fully curving forward, rather close to jaws, 5 ; eyes, prominent, bright, 2 ; 
ears, moderately large, covered with short white hair, 2 ; neck, symmetrical, 
strongly set on shoulders, gradually tapering to junction of head, 5 ; shoulders, 
broad and full, joining neck forward, and chine backward with no depression 
at either point (important), 15; brisket, wide and well forward, chest full 
and deep, 8 ; fore flank, quite full, showing no depression behind shoulders, 
10 ; back and loin, flat and straight, from which ribs should spring with a 
fine circular arch, 10 ; quarters, wide and full with mutton extending down 
to hock, 6 ; belly, straight on under line, 5 ; fleece, medium grade, of even 
quality, and presenting a smooth surface, well covered on belly and legs, 12 ; 
general conformation of the mutton type, body moderately lengthy, short legs 
placed squarely under body, appearance attractive, skin pink colored. 15. 



124b 



FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 125 



SCALE OF POINTS FOR MUTTON SHEEP — FOR WETHER. r< 

GENERAL APPEARANCE: £$ 

Weight, score according to age 8 

Form, long, level, deep, broad, low set, stylish 10 

Quality, clean bone, silky hair, fine skin, light in offal 

yielding large percentage of meat 10 

Condition, deep even covering of firm flesh especially 
in region of valuable cuts. Points indicating condi- 
tion or ripeness are thick dock, back thickly cov- 
ered with flesh, thick neck, full purse, full low flank, 

plump breast 10 

HEAD AND NECK: 

Muzzle, fine, mouth large, lips thin, nostrils large. ... 1 

Eyes, large, clear, placid 1 

Face, short, clean cut features 1 

Forehead, broad, full 1 

Ears, fine, erect ] 

Neck, thick, short, throat free from folds 1 

FORE QUARTERS: 

Shoulder Vein, full 1 

Shoulder, covered with flesh, compact on top, smooth 1 

Brisket, projecting forward, breast wide 1 

Legs, straight, short, wide apart, strong; fore arm 

full, shank smooth and fine 1 

BODY: 

Chest, wide, deep, full, indicating constitution f> 

Back, broad, straight, long, wide, thickly fleshed, ribs 

arched 10 

Loin, thick, broad, long 10 

HIND QUARTERS: 

Hips, far apart, level, smooth 2 

Rump, long, level, wide to tail head 3 

Thighs, full, deep, wide 3 

Twist, plump, deep 3 

Legs, straight, short, strong; shank smooth, fine. ... 1 

WOOL: 

Quantity, long, dense, even 4 

Quality, fine, pure; crimp close, regular, even 4 

Condition, bright, sound, clean, soft, light 4 

Total 100 



128 JUDGING SHEEP 

II. JUDGING SHEEP FOR BREEDING PURPOSES. 

In judging pure bred sheep in the breeding classes, the 
subject of breed type should receive careful consideration. 
While it has a bearing on the judging of all classes of 
pure bred stock, yet it is of double importance in the pure 
bred classes of sheep. 

182. Formation of Types. The type that has become 
characteristic of each breed has arisen from a variety of 
causes. In all instances the breeder's skill in selecting and 
mating has been a controlling factor, but other influences 
have assisted more or less. In some instances, the func- 
tion of the animal or the work it is called upon to do has 
had a strong influence. This is evident in the instance 
of the running horse, the trotting horse and the dairy 
cow ; where the form or the type has developed from the 
function. In other instances the environment has aided 
man in the work of selection an^l this is notably true of 
sheep. The adaptability of sheep for different altitudes 
of land enables us to divide them into lowland breeds, 
upland or down breeds, and mountain breeds. The low- 
land breeds are large, square and strongly framed, and 
heavy producers of wool and mutton; the down breeds 
are smaller, but rounder and more compact with fleece, 
frame and mutton of better quality. The mountain breeds 
must have more vigor and agility than those previously 
mentioned to earn subsistance under rougher conditions, 
so that the possession of a rugged constitution, and active 
disposition with strong limbs and muscles are of more im- 
portance than the other features that are characteristic 
of other types. Man seeks to fix the type considered char- 
acteristic of the breeds by elaborating a scale of points 
representing the features desired in the types and towards 
the production of these ideal types all the breeders bend 
their energies. 




Rambouillet ram lamb imported by George Harding & Sons, Wauke- 
sha, Wis. A frequent first prize winner in the state fair circuit of 1899. 
Owned by J. F. Jensen, Mount Pleasant, Utah. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE RAMBOUILLET SHEEP. 

»|»HIS is the largest breed of fine wooled .sheep and they have been estab- 
■ lished in France from the orginal Merino type by generous feeding and 
careful selection, having in view a large form with tendency towards mutton 
making and fleece that is fine in fiber, very long and markedly dense. The 
aim has been to produce a fine wooled sheep with mutton qualities. Size of 
form has been secured and where this possesses sufficient quality and smooth- 
ness it represents a high order of combination of wool and mutton producing 
tendencies. The head is covered with a dense growth of wool extending over 
nose, cheeck and around the eye. The ewe should be polled and the rams 
possessed of horns. The ears are somewhat short, silky in feeling, due, largely 
to pliability and a fine growth of hair. The neck is somewhat thick but com- 
paratively free from wrinkles and the chest very deep. The body should 
continue its depth and have a smooth layer of flesh. The hind quarters 
should not droop but be characterized by levelness with a fold at the tail 
head. The legs are short, strong and straight. The feature of most decided 
merit connected with this breed is the character of the fleece which yields 
heavily because of its unusual density and the combination of length and 
fineness which the fiber shows. The fleece should show bright and lustrous 
with a uniformly fine crimp extending from tip to base. The yolk should bo 
free and not clotted at any part of the fleece. These characteristics should 
be noticeable in all regions showing it to be true and even in quality through- 
out. The fleece in addition to extending well over the face should run down 
od tb^ legs as far as possible and make a complete covering of the belly. 



126a 




A prize winning Merino ewe (Class A) bred by D. K. Bell. 
Rochester, N. Y. 

DESCRIPTION OP THE DELAINE MERINO SHEEP. 

THIS FAMILY of American Merinos has been established by increasing the 
size smoothening the form,, lengthening the fiber- and adding somewhat 
to the mutton properties of the ancestral stock. In some families the polled 
feature is an additional characteristic. In those that are horned these should 
in turning keep clear of the face. - The form in -general -has been enlarged and 
smoothened by the development of a tendency to take on flesh. The fleece 
being comparatively free of wrinkles has also contributed to the smoothness 
of form which is characteristic of the Delaine. As in' the other type quality 
of bone, skin and hair and the addition of quality of fleece with fineness in 
every particular snculd be mainly characteristic. See official scale of points, 
page 139. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE AMERICAN MERINO SHEEP. 
fHIS BREED with its fascinating history starting in Syria, passing into 
■ Greece, from there to Italy, then to Spain on to France and from thence 
to England and later to Australia and America has an historical record for 
inherent constitution which has made them strong in type and very decided 
in their characteristics. Size and mutton form are not characteristic of the 
breed but quality in every requirement is a striking attribute. The face is 
white and the head closely capped with wool extending down on the bridge 
of the nose and completely surrounding the eyes. The ear is small, pointed 
and covered with wool and a soft growth of hair. In the ram the horn 
should spring strong and completely clear of the face, the neck is light and 
so is the shoulder and a marked feature is the depth of the chest, the floor 
coming down well between the fore legs which are short and strong. The 
body is short, the rib deep, the loin and hind quarter strong. The fleece 
under careful examination should be very dense with even surface. The 
fiber should be long, fine, sound and when the fleece is opened it should 
part readily from end to end showing an even and free distribution of yolk. 
To the finger and thumb softness of the wool should be apparent, while to 
the eye it should show a lustre and brightness throughout. Where the 
wrinkles occur they should not have any coarse fibers on the tops of the 
folds and the yolk should not be clotted in the creases or any portion of 
the fleece. American Merinos are now shown in three classes, A, B, and 
C. The ewe in the above illustration shows the A type. The C type is 
free from wrinkles and has longer wool. The B type is intermediate be- 
tween the other two. 



12Gb 



FOE BREEDING PURPOSES 127 

183. Value of Breed Type. The type of the breed 
having been decided upon by all the breeders, it sho/uld 
be the aim of the judge to recognize it, for aside from 
an acknowledgment of the wishes of the breeders it is a 
point of direct value to do so. When a breed has been 
bred uniformly to a type for many years the type has 
become so fixed that it is uniformly transmitted. Two 
of the most powerful factors aiding the fixing of the type 
of a breed are the breeders seeking to produce the animal 
of ideal type as represented by the scale of points and 
the judges conforming to it in the show ring. The re- 
sult is influential in regard to breeding, as it assists in 
making the breed prepotent or able to transmit its char- 
acteristics with a greater degree of certainty. Another 
feature associated with the fixing of the breed type by 
the assistance of the breeder and the judge is the fact 
that it then becomes possible to select breeding stock 
from among the pure breeds with special reference to 
their adaptability for a definite environment. Knowing 
the environment that has assisted in producing a type of 
any breed of sheep and knowing that a certain type has 
become the fixed property of that breed, it is possible to 
make an intelligent choice of a breed for any environ- 
ment. It is this adaptability for different environments 
that has given us over twenty-five different breeds of 
sheep, and as it is the possession of these peculiarities 
which unite in what is called breed type that gives each a 
place. Consequently it is important that the breeder 
should try to retain the type and in this secure the co- 
operation of the judge. 

184. The Ram. Aside from the breed type which is 
outlined in the scales of points that are given elsewhere, 
the ram in type should show masculinity in many fea- 
tures. In those breeds that have horns, the latter should 
spring strong from the head and turn free from the face. 



128 JUDGING SHEEP 

In all rams the face should be broad between the eyes, 
somewhat short with a Roman nose. The crest or scrag 
should be thick and rising and the neck full. A point de- 
serving emphasis is the depth of the chest. The body 
should sink deep between the fore legs and the ribs back 
of the shoulder should be deep and round, making the 
girth large and the brisket prominent and wide — two 
features that are indicative of a strong constitution. A 
live fleece, that is, one that is springy and not dead to the 
touch, and especially a dense thick covering of belly wool 
is also indicative of vigor or constitution. For the same 
reason in those breeds that are wooled about the head, 
the more complete and dense this covering is, the better 
it is liked. The legs of the ram should be straight and 
strong and short. The movement of the ram should be 
bold and active. This is often influenced by the condi- 
tion. A ram should never be so heavy in flesh as to be 
useless for service, as is too often the case in the show 
ring. The flesh should be even and firm, and not gath- 
ered in masses or rolls at any part of the body. It is very 
apt to gather at the fore flank, leaving the back bare or 
raw. Excessive condition is likely to make the ram un- 
wieldy in action or result in broken down pasterns which 
usually render a ram useless for breeding purposes. 

185. The Ewe. The ewe should be rather long in the 
face with fine features. The neck should be slender and 
without any of the thickness noticeable in the ram. The 
body should be deep, round ribbed and specially long so 
as to provide room for the growing lamb. The type of 
the good milking ewe verges strongly towards that which 
is typical of the good dairy cow. The ewe that milks 
well, and, consequently- rears early maturing lambs tends 
towards the wedge shape, deep in the chest, large bodied 
and wide across the loins and the hips. The condition of 
the ewe should not be such as to ir\pair her breeding 



FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 129 

qualities. Excessive fatness as a rule is in this way in- 
jurious. The flesh should be evenly distributed and not 
gathered in bunches about the tail head, and it should be 
firm and not flabby. 

186. Judging Lambs and Flocks. In judging lambs 
the main consideration is to make due allowance for the 
difference in age among the contestants. As to the pos- 
sibilities of future development, the judge can only have 
his own experience and observation to guide him. It may 
be said, however, that it will be found as a rule that the 
short, smooth and thick lamb, which shows best at five 
or six months old or under, will rarely develop into a 
sheep of desirable size when mature ; while the lamb that 
is more growthy, yet possessing a well knit frame, show- 
ing some length and also quality, will develop both size 
and smoothness. Stress should be laid on the strength, 
straightness and firmness of the back and the depth of 
the body. In judging flocks the rams that head them 
should receive chief consideration, though this does not 
mean that the uniformity and the type of the ewes should 
be overlooked. An exceptionally good ram either in the 
show ring or in use as a sire will as a rule obliterate a 
multitude of small faults in the remainder of the flock. 
In reference to the ages of the individuals in the flock, 
the nearer they are to being yearlings the higher they 
should be appraised. Younger than this calls for sup- 
positions relating to their development, and when they 
pass beyond two years, their worth in the flock has lost 
the value that results from the production of one year, 
though it cannot be said that the merit of the sheep has 
decreased in any other respect. 



130 



JUDGING SHEEP 



III. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP. 

SOUTHDOWN SHEEP. 



STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE — AMERICAN SOUTHDOWN 

RECORD, VOL, I; 1884. 

en 

Head — Medium in size and hornless, fine, carried well up, § 
forehead or face well covered with wool, especially ft 
between the ears and on the cheeks, and in the ewe 
slightly dished 5 

Lips and under jaw fine and thin 1 

Ears — Rather small, tolerably wide apart, covered with fine 
hair and carried with a lively back and forth move- 
ment 2 

Eyes — Full and bright 3 

Face — A uniform tint of brown, or gray, or mouse color. . 3 

Neck — Short, fine at the head, but nicely tapering, and 

broad and straight on top at the shoulders 4 

Shoulders — Broad and full, smoothly joining the neck with 
the back 5 

Breast — Wide, deep and projecting well forward, the fore- 
legs standing well apart 5 

Back and loin broad and straight from shoulders to rump . 7 

Ribs — Well arched, extending far backward, the last pro- 
jecting more than the others 6 

Rump — Broad, square and full, with tail well set up ... . 6 

Hips — Wide, with little space between them and the last 

ribs 6 

Thighs — Pull and well let down in twist, the legs standing 

well apart 6 

Limbs — Short and fine in bone, and in color to agree with 

face 3 

Fore Legs — Well wooled and carrying mutton to the knees, 

but free from meat below 2 

Hind Legs — Well filled with mutton and wooled to the 

hocks, neat and clean below 2 

Belly — Straight and well covered with wool, the flank ex- 
tending so as to form a line parallel with the back or 
top line 5 

Fleece — Compact, the whole body well covered with moder- 
ately long and close wool, white in color, carrying some 
yolk 12 

Form — Throughout smooth and symmetrical, with no 

coarseness in any part 9 

General Appearance — Spirited and attractive, with a de- 
termined look, a proud and firm step, indicating con- 
stitutional vigor and thorough breeding 8 

Total 100 



OFFICIAL STANDAKDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 131 

SHROPSHIRE SHEEP. 



POINTS OF EXCELLENCE FOB PURE BRED SHROPSHIRE SHEEP ra 

RECORDED OR ELIGIBLE TO EEGISTRY IN THE AMERICAN § 

SHROPSHIRE REGISTRY ASSOCIATION RECORD. Q 

Type and General Appearance 3 

An alert, attractive, and stylish appearance, show- 
ing at a glance the true characteristics of the 
Shropshire. 
Form and Constitution 35 

Head. To impress at once the Shropshire charac- 
teristics. 

Heads of Rams. To be masculine, as indicated by a 
broad nostril; short; broad between ears and eyes. 

Neck of Rams. Short and muscular, fitting into 
shoulders in graceful outlines. 

Heads of Ewes. To be feminine in appearance, me- 
dium in length, but not delicate. 

Neck of Ewes. Not so strong as in the ram. In all 
cases head and face nicely covered with wool; 
ears, short and erect; eyes, bright; color of face, 
brown to a clear dark (not sooty black). 

Body. Well proportioned, with shoulders so placed 
as to fit in evenly to a deep wide brisket. A full 
heart girth; broad level back; ribs well sprung, 
with straight underline; loins thick fleshed; fore 
and hind flank deep; a low-coupled twist, and full 
leg of mutton. 

Legs. Brown to clear dark color (not sooty black); 
Avell set apart; short and straight, with strong up- 
right pasterns. 

Size. When fully matured and in proper breeding 
condition, rams should weigh not less than 175 to 
250 pounds and ewes not less than 140 to 180 
pounds. 

Fleshing; 2 5 

While the body should be well formed, with the full 
outline pleasing to the eye, yet it is the quality and 
quantity of flesh, not fat, which gives value to the 
carcass. Therefore the parts furnishing the high- 
priced cuts should be fully developed. 

The back, loins and legs should be so fleshed as to 
show a large percentage of flesh compared with the 
other parts of the body; at the same time sym- 
metry must prevail throughout. 

Strong bone in legs conformable with size of body 
usually goes with a large proportion of lean meat 
to fat in the finished carcass. 
Fleece and Skin 10 

Fleece of good length, elastic to the touch, medium 
fine and slightly crimped, free from black fiber 
and hairiness. Ram's scrotum to be well covered 
with wool. 



132 JUDGING SHEEP 

Rams should shear 8 to 15 pounds of wool and ewes 

7 to 11. 
Skin to be a bright cherry or clear color and com- 
paratively free from dark spots. 

Objections — Long, narrow head, with long ears and neck; 
long legs; black wool on head to any noticeable ex- 
tent; failure of wool to meet closely at the junction 
of face-wool and on checks; white spots on face and 
legs; crooked spine; light flanks, with long, weak 
pasterns; spotted skin; narrow chest, showing lack 
of constitution. 

Disqualification for Registry — Such lack of type as to ren- 
der it doubtful to a breeder what the breed is; horns 
or stubs, not scurs. Heads quite bare of wool. 



HAMPSHIRE DOWN. 



STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY AMERICAN 

HAMPSHIRE DOWN SHEEP BREEDERS 

ASSOCIATION, VOL. I, 1890. 

Head — Moderately large, but not coarse; well covered with 
wool on forehead and cheeks. 

Nostrils — Wid e. 

Color — Head and Legs — Dark brown or black. 

Eyes — Prominent and lustrous. 

Ears — Moderately long and thin and dark brown or black 
color. 

Legs — Well under outside of body, straight with good size 
of bone, black. 

Neck — A regular taper from shoulders to head, without any 
hollow in front of shoulders, set high up on body. 

Shoulders — Sloping full, and not higher than the line of 
back and neck. 

Chest — Deep and full in the heart place, with breast prom- 
inent and full. 

Back — Straight with full spring of rib. 

Loin — Wide and straight, without depression in front of 
hips. 

Quarters — Long from hips to rump, without sloping, and 
deep in thigh. Broad in hips and rump, with full hams. In- 
side of thighs full. 

SCALE OF POINTS Counts 

Head — Size and shape, 5; ears and eyes, 3; color, 5; legs 

and feet, 2 15 

Neck, Shoulders and Breast — Neck, 5; shoulders, 10; chest 

and breast, 15 30 

Body — Back and loin, 15; rib, 5 20 

Quarters* — Length, 10; width, 10; twist, 5 25 

Wool — Forehead and cheeks, 2; belly, well covered, 3; 

quality, 5 10 

Total 100 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 13( 



SUFFOLK SHEEP. 



SCALE OF POINTS. SUFFOLK SHEEP SOCIETY FLOCK 
BOOK, VOL. VII, 1893. ENGLAND. 

Head — Hornless; face black and long, and muzzle moder- m 
ately fine, especially in ewes. (A small quantity of | 
clean white wool on the forehead not objected to.) ft 
Ears a medium length, black, and fine texture. Eyes 

bright and full 25 

Neck — Moderate length and well set. (In rams stronger, 

with a good crest) 5 

Shoulder — Broad and oblique 5 

Chest — Deep and wide 5 

Back and Loin — Long, level, and well covered with meat 
and muscle; tail broad and well set up. The ribs long 

and well sprung, with a full flank 2 

Legs and Feet — Straight and black, with fine and flat bone, 
Wooled to knees and hocks, clean below. Fore legs 

well filled with mutton 2G 

Belly; also Scrotum of Rams — Well covered with wool. ... 5 
Fleece — Moderately short; close, fine fiber, without ten- 
dency to matt or felt together, and well defined, i. e., 

not shading off into dark wool or hair 10 

Skin — Fine, soft, and pink color 5 



Total 100 



134 JUDGING SHEET 

OXFORD DOWN SHEEP. 



isOALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY AMERICAN OXFOED DOWN 

SHEEP BREEDERS ASSOCIATION. IN FOUR 

DIVISIONS. 

Breed type 30 

Constitution 2 5 

Mutton form and quality 30 

Wool 15 

SUB-DIVISION — BREED TYPE OF ANIMALS. 

Form of a good general appearance, made by a well bal- 
anced conformation, free from coarseness in any part, 
and showing good style both at rest and in motion. . 15 

Head of moderate length and width between the ears and 
between the eyes, and well covered with wool over 
poll and down to the eyes. Color of face an even dark 
gray or brown, either with or without gray spots on 
tip of nose 6 

When fully matured and in good condition rams should 

weigh 250 to 350 pounds; ewes, 180 to 275 pounds. . 5 

Ears medium size, not too thick and of an even brown or 

dark gray color 2 

Legs short, strong in bone, flat and of even dark gray or 
brown color, placed squarely under the body and well 
apart 2 

CONSTITUTION. 

Large around the heart and wide and full in the chest. ... 10 

The movement must be Lold and vigorous 5 

Eyes bold, prominent and bright 4 

Skin bright pink in color 6 

Neck strong and muscular in rams and well set on in both 
sexes 3 

MUTTON FORM AND QUALITY. 

Wide and straight on top of shoulders, back, loin and rump, 

from base of neck to tail 15 

Full shoulders and thighs, well meated both inside and out- 
side 5 

Flanks well filled and strong so as to make the lower lines 
of the body as straight as possible, and side lines 
straight on rather full 4 

The whole carcass evenly covered with good, well marbled 

meat 6 

WOOL. 

Fleece of moderate length, close and of even quality, cover- 
ing the whole carcass well, and free from black 
patches upon the body, neck or head 15 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 135 



COTSWOLD SHEEP. 

STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE AND SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED 

BY AMERICAN COTSWOLD ASSOCIATION, m 

VOL. v, 1892 — EWES. g 

Head — Moderately fine, broad between the eyes and nos- .3 
trils, but without a short, thick appearance, and well 
covered on crown with long lustrous wool 8 

Face — Either white or slightly mixed with gray, or white 

dappled with brown 4 

Nostrils — Wide and expanded. Nose dark i 

Eyes — Prominent, but mild looking 2 

Ears — Broad, long, moderately thin and covered with short 

hair 4 

Collar — Pull from breast and shoulders, tapering gradually 
all the way to where the neck and head join — neck 
should be fine and graceful, and free from coarse and 
loose skin 5 

Shoulders — Broad and full, and, at the same time, joined 
so gradually to the collar forward and chine back- 
wards, as not to leave the least hollow in either place 8 

Fore Legs — The mutton on the arm, or fore thigh, should 
come quite to the knee. Leg upright with heavy bone, 
— being clear from superfluous skin, with wool to fet- 
lock and may be mixed with gray 4 

Breast — Broad and well forward, keeping the legs wide 

apart. Girth and chest full and deep 10 

Fore Flank — Quite full, not showing hollow behind the 

shoulder 4 

Back and Loin — Broad, flat and straight, from which the 

ribs must spring, with a fine circular arch 12 

Belly — Straight on underline 5 

Quarters — Long and full, with mutton quite down to the 

hock 8 

Hock — Should stand neither in nor out 2 

Twist — Or junction inside of thighs deep, wide and full, 
which with a broad breast, will keep the legs open 
and upright 5 

Fleece — The whole body should be covered with long, lust- 
rous wool 18 



Total 100 



136 JUDGING SHEEP 



FOR RAMS. w 

c 

Head — Not too fine, moderately small, and broad between Q 
the eyes and nostrils, but without a short, thick ap- 
pearance, and in young animals well covered on crown 
with long, lustrous wool 8 

Face — Either white or slightly mixed with gray, or white 

dappled with brown 4 

Nostrils — Wide and expanded. Nose dark 1 

Eyes — Prominent, but mild looking. . . 2 

Ears — Broad, long, moderately thin, and covered with short 

hair 4 

Collar — Full from breast and shoulders, tapering gradually 
all the way to where the neck and head join. The neck 
should be short, thick and strong, indicating consti- 
tutional vigor, and free from coarse and loose skin. . 6 

Shoulders — Broad and full, and at the same time joined 
gradually to the collar forward, and chine backward 
as not to leave the least hollow in either place 8 

Fore Legs — The mutton on the arm or fore thigh should 
come quite to the knee. Leg upright with heavy bone 
— being clear from superfluous skin, with wool to fet- 
lock, and may be mixed with gray 4 

Breast — Broad and well forward, keeping the legs wide 

apart. Girth or chest, full and deep 10 

Fore Flank — Quite full, not showing hollow behind the 

shoulder 5 

Back and Loin — Broad, flat and straight, from which the 

ribs must spring with a fine circular arch 12 

Belly — Straight on underline 3 

Quarters; — Long and full, with mutton quite down to the 

hock 8 

Hock — Should stand neither in nor out 2 

Twist — Or junction inside thighs, deep, wide and full 
which with a broad breast will keep the legs open and 
upright 5 

Fleece — The whole body should be covered with long lust- 
rous wool • • 18 

Total 100 




' Photograph showing serious objections in 
is too straight and the pasterns broken down. 



a ram. The hind leg 




Flock of Dorset ewes, reproduced from Live Stock Journal, showing 
Uniformity and type desired in a foundation flock. Address of owner 
not given. 



136a 




A Cheviot ram and ewe shown in 1911 by G. W. Parnell, Win- 
gate, Ind. 



^i^wSiC 



Romney Marsh Ram. 



136b 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 137 



WENSLEYDALE SHEEP. 



SCALE OF POINTS FOR WENSLEYDALE RAMS. w 

Head — Face dark; ears dark and well set on; head broad 3 
and flat between ears; muzzle strong in rams; a tuft § 
of wool on forehead; eyes bright and full; head gaily 
carried 15 

Neck— Moderate length, strong, and well set on to the 

shoulders 10 

Shoulder — Broad and oblique 5 

Chest — Deep and wide 10 

Wool — Bright luster; curled all over body; all alike in 

staple 20 

Back and Loins — Ribs well sprung and deep; loins broad 

and covered with meat; tail broad; flank full 2 5 

Legs and Feet — Straight and a little fine wool below the 
hock; fore legs well set apart; hind legs well filled 
with mutton 15 

Total 100 



DORSET HORN SHEEP. 



SCALE OF POINTS AS ADOPTED BY THE CONTINENTAL DORSET CLUB. 

Head — Neat, face white, nostrils large, well covered on 

crown and under jaws with wool 5 

Horns — Small and gracefully curving forward rather close 

to jaw 5 

Eyes — Prominent and bright 2 

Ears — Medium size covered with short white hair 2 

Neck — Short, symmetrical, strongly set on shoulders, 

gradually tapering to junction of head 5 

Shoulders — Broad and full, joining neck forward and chine 
backward with no depression at either point (import- 
ant) 15 

Brisket — Wide and full, forward, chest full and deep. ... 8 

Fore flank — Quite full, showing little depression behind 

shoulder 8 

Back and Loin — Wide and straight, from which ribs should 

spring with a fine, circular arch 10 

Quarters — Wide and full, with mutton extending down to 

hocks . 10 

Belly — Straight on under line ■. . 3 

Fleece — Medium grade, of even quality presenting a 
smooth surface and extending over belly and well 
down on legs 12 

General Conformation — Of the mutton type, body, moder- 
ately long; short, stout legs, placed squarely under 
body; skin pink; appearance . attractive 15 

Total 100 



138 JUDGING SHEEP 

CHEVIOT SHEEP. 



SCALE OF POINTS AS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN 
CHEVIOT SHEEP SOCIETY. 

General Conformation and Quality — Deep and full breast 
and large through chest; back wide and straight, with 
well-sprung, deep ribs; legs well placed and leg of g 
mutton full and thick; body well fleshed, skin pink, § 
with no blue or dark coloring; fleece compact and me- g 
dium fine; bone strong and fine; general appearance 
graceful, symmetrical, active 2 

Size — In good flesh when fully matured a 24-months-old 
ram should weigh not less than 225 pounds and a ewe 
not less than 150 pounds 10 

Head — Should be medium short and broad, with ample 
breadth between the eyes; ears should be of medium 
length and usually erect when at repose; head cov- 
ered with clear white hairs, extending from nostrils to 
back of poll; ridge of head from between eyes to nos- 
trils straight or slightly arched with females and more 
strongly arched or Roman with rams; color of tip of 
nose black 15 

Body — Well proportioned, having notable depth, with 
thickness on top and at flanks. Loins should be very 
broad and thick; shoulders should set well back and 
be smoothly covered, and crops be full and well 
arched. The rump should be long, broad, and level. 20 

I*egs- — should be short, well set apart, and be covered 
with clean, white hair, with no wool below hocks 
and knees. The hind legs should be flat and deep be- 
low hocks. Pasterns should be strong and not show 
weakness, supporting the body well 10 

Feet — Symmetrical, squarely placed when in repose, and 

hoofs black in color 5 

Fleece — Should cover the body completely to behind the 
poll and ears and down to knees and hocks. Under 
part of the body should be well covered. In mature 
animals should be not less than 3 inches long for an- 
nual growth and be compact and of medium wool 
class. Rams should shear at least 12 pounds and 
ewes 8, when in mature form, to be desirable repre- 
sentatives of the breed 20 

OBJECTIONS. 

Scurs on the head, black spots on the head, flesh-colored or 
spotted skin about the nostrils, hair about the thighs or kemp 
on the body, reddish or sandy hair on head or legs, lack of 
wool on under part of body. 

Disqualifications: All male lambs shall be ineligible to reg- 
istration if having scurs or horns exceeding 1 inch in length. 




A group of Leicester ewes, prizewinners at the Highland Agricul- 
tural Society Show of Scotland. 




Suffolk ram, a first prize winner at the Royal Agricultural Society 
Show. England. 



138a 




Prize Dorset ewe and lamb, winners at International Exposition, 
Chicago, 1900. Owned by J. E. Wing, Mechanicsburg, Ohio. 




Imported Shopshire yearling ewes from the flock of Craig & Steven- 
son, Rice Lake, Wisconsin. 



138b 



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Class A Merino ram, Don Alfonso, champion at New York State 
Fair, 190». Bred and shown by D. K. Bell, Rochester, N. Y. 



** • 








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From photograph in the 'Australian Pastoralists' Review." Merino 
ram President,, bred by Hon. James Gibson ; sold at Sydney, Australia, 
for $8,000, July, 1896. 



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OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOE SHEEP 139 



DELAINE SPANISH MERINO SHEEP. 

SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE STANDARD DELAINE 

SPANISH MERINO REGISTER. | 

Pure Merino Blood — Which must be established by certifi- <§ 

cate o 

Constitution — Indicated by a deep chest, long rib well 
arched, giving heart and lung room, with great di- 
gestive capacity 2 

Fleece — XX and delaine wool. This includes the quantity 
and quality as sihown by weight of fleece, the length 
and strength of staple, crimp, fineness and trueness 

of fiber 10 

Density of Fleece 3 

Evenness of Surface 3 

Evenness of Crimp . 3 

Length of Fiber 2 

Free Flowing Oil — Of the best quality and the right quan- 
tity to protect the sheep and preserve the fleece 9 

Head — Medium size. Ewes showing a feminine appear- 
ance; rams, a masculine, with properly turned horns 4 
Eyes — Bright, prominent and well set apart, with a thick, 

soft eye lid 3 

Nose — Short, broad, with well expanded nostrils, skin thick 
and covered with thick, furry coating, joining the 

wool one inch below the eye 4 

Ears — Medium size, set well apart, thickly coated 2 

Neck — Short on top, deep and strongly attached to shoul- 
ders, tapering to head; rams with a fold across the 

breast, and deep neck 4 

Fleece — Covering over the entire body, head and legs, skin 

thick and spongy , 4 

Legs — Short, strong and well apart 2 

Feet — Neatly shaped, thin hoof, well set under the leg. . . 4 
Quarters — Deep and well rounded; back, broad, straight 

and strongly coupled to quarters 10 

Weight — Ewes at maturity, 100 pounds and above; rams, 

150 and above 8 

General Appearance — Good carriage, bold and vigorous 

style, symmetrical form 5 

Total 100 

Any sheep scaling below 60 per cent in any point can not 
be recorded. 



140 JUDGING SHEEP 

BLACK FACED HIGHLAND SHEEP. 



POINTS OF COLOR AND EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN 
BLACKFACED SHEEP ASSOCIATION. 

All sheep shall be black in the face. No sheep with a white 
or brownish face shall be admitted. Points of rams con- 
sidered of high merit — shall have the following points — and 
ewes to follow as near as possible. 

Counts 

Rams shall have thick and medium short muzzles 2 

Brown nostrils 2 

Face to be full from top of crown down to nostrils 2 

Large prominent eyes 2 

Horns coming out straight above the ears and not bending 

backwards towards the neck 10 

Pace must be broad above the eyes and not hollowed be- 
low the eyes 5 

Shoulder must be broad, and back straight from shoulder 

to rump 12 

Ribs must be well arched . 8 

Legs must be well set apart 8 

Chest expanding out and forward and ham bending slightly 

backward while in motion 11 

Movement must be quick and active 10 

Fleece must be of a dense thick quality, free from kemp, 
and not fine and soft, and coming down to within 

about two inches of the ground, when full fleece 2 

At exhibitions sheep must be turned up to ascertain bone 
quality which must be thick, and breast and belly 
well covered 8 

Total ,-. 100 




HIGHLAND SHEEP AT HOME 
Photo by Reid 



140a 






^W C -J-''y-^ 








Photo by Schreiber. 

Imported Shropshire ewe-lambs owned by W. L. Elkins, Philadel- 
phia, Pi. 




Southdown ram lambs. The property of the Pagham Harbour Com- 
pany, Selsey, Chichester, England. Winners of first prize at R. A. 
S. E. Show, 1898. 



1401; 




Hampshire flock shown in 1911 by C. O. Judd, Kent, Ohio. 




Imported Oxford Down prize winning ewe, Irchester Model 18445, 
and ram, Hobb's Rector . 17470. First prize winners at the Trans- 
Mississippi Exposition held at Omaha 1898. The ram was the cham- 
pion sheep of the Exposition. Owned by Richard Stone, Stonington, 
111. 



140c 




Cotswold ewes from the flock of C. E. Ladd, Portland, Oregon, 
showing the vigor and thrift of sheep when under environment which 
favors them such as the Willamette Valley, in that state. 




Selected heads to show the characteristic form of this part in the 
breeds represented. The one to the left is photographed from the 
head of a Cotswold ram owned by Messrs. Geo. Harding & Son, of 
Waukesha, Wisconsin. This photograph shows the beautiful forelock 
desired in representatives of this breed. The head shown in the upper 
right hand corner is that of an imported Shropshire ram lamb owned 
by Craig & Stevenson, Rice Lake, Wis. The head shown shows not 
only a very complete covering, but also much width between the eyes 
and across the forehead, while the ears are well placed being far 
apart. The photograph of the black faced ram's head which appears 
in the center is taken from Scott's "Black Faced Sheep," and it rep- 
resents the head of "Seventy-Two," first prize winner at the Highland 
and Agricultural Society Shows, 1883 to 1885. The horn illustrates the 
type which is sought in representatives of any of the horned breeds. 



140d 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 141 

TUNIS OR BROAD TAILED SHEEP. 



STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN 
TUNIS SHEEP BREEDERS ASSOCIATION. 



3 



SCALE OF POINTS. £ 

Blood 20 

Constitution 15 

Fleece 10 

Covering 10 

Form and Tail 12 

Head and Ears 10 

Neck 5 

Legs 6 

Size 6 

General Appearance 6 

Total 100 

Blood — Imported from Tunis, or having a perfect line of an- 
cestors extending back to the flock owned and bred by Judge 
Richard Peters of Belmont, near Philadelphia, who received 
his first pair from Tunis in 1779, and bred them pure for 
more than 20 years. 

Constitution — Healthful countenance, lively look, head 
erect, deep chest, ribs well arched, round body with good 
length. Strong, straight back; muscles fine- and firm. 

Fleece — Medium length, medium quality, medium quantity, 
color tinctured with gray, never pur© white. Evenness through. 
out. 

Covering — Body and neck well covered with wool. Legs 
bare or slightly covered; face free from wool and covered with 
fine hair. 

Form and Tail — Body straight and broad and well propor- 
tioned. Small bone; breast wide and prominent in front. Tail 
the little end should be docked, leaving the fleshy part fan 
s'haped, or tapering; five or ten inches broad, six or eight 
inches long and well covered with wool. 

Head and Ears — Head small and hornless, tapering to end 
of nose; face and nose clean; in color, brown and white. Ears 
broad, t'hin, pendulous, covered with fine hair; in color brown 
to light fawn. 

Neck — Medium in length, well placed on shoulders; small 
and tapering. 

Legs — Short. In color brown and white; slightly wooled 
not objectionable. 

Size — In fair condition, when fully matured, ra r ns should 
weigh 150 pounds and upwards; ewes 120 pounds and up- 
wards. 

General Appearance — Good carriage; head well up; quick 
elastic movements, showing symmetry olf form and uniformity 
of character throughout. 



JUDGING SWINE. 





s$ 



£ fo 



CHAPTER IV. 

JUDGING SWINE. 

In judging swine the butcher's preference must be the 
leading guide as it is in judging all other classes of fat 
stock. These preferences are in turn largely controlled 
by the demands of the market, so we find in some mar- 
kets a bacon hog, so called because of its deep, long sides, 
is preferred by the butchers ; while in others the prefer- 
ence is for fat hogs because there is demand for hams, 
shoulders and broad, fat backs, and these features would 
attract the butcher's attention. In forming an opinion as 
to the best type of swine it is necessary to keep the re- 
quirements of these two markets distinctly in view, for 
they have established for us two very distinct market 
classes of hogs, the fat hog and the bacon hog. While 
every consideration should be given to the butcher's pref- 
erence, for the profit of hog feeding largely lies in suc- 
cessfully catering to them, yet there are some points re- 
lating to the feeding qualities of a hog which demand 
consideration in the joint interests of the feeder and 
breeder. The evidences of constitution and vigor are 
things on which the butcher cannot realize profit, but the 
feeder and the breeder know that they are prime essen- 
tials in the animals required for their purpose. 

I. JUDGING FAT HOGS. 

187. Form — Low, Long, Deep. In respect to the form 
of the fat hog, one of the leading considerations is the 
weight, though the market requirements in this respect 



146 JUDGING SWINE 

are by no means stable. At some times the market pref- 
erences are decidedly in favor of the hog weighing 200 
pounds, and again in a short while the 400-pound hog 
makes the top price, but as a rule it will be found that 
the most profitable weight for selling is from 200 to 300 
pounds. This fact meets the breeders' preferences exactly, 
for he realizes that up to the attainment of this weight 
his hogs have been making the most profitable gain for 
him. The influences of the present market are all directed 
towards the development of a rapidly maturing hog that 
will be in smooth prime condition for the butcher when 
it reaches about 250 pounds in live weight. The hogs 
that fatten quickest and meet the butcher's requirements 
for fat hogs are low, deep and wide in form. They are 
compactly built, deep chested, long, and round-ribbed, 
with straight top and bottom lines sustained by standing 
squarely on strong and straight legs. Over these parts 
there is a smoothness that is indicative of the proper 
development of form and flesh. 

188. Quality — Fine Hair; Clean Bone. The indica- 
tions of quality are fine hair and comparatively light, hard 
and clean looking bone. Fineness of parts in general is 
an evidence of quality. Hogs with coarse bone, coarse 
hair and hide are not the best breeders, and the butcher 
does not like them because of the large percentage of 
offal which they dress. In addition to being fine, the 
hair should lie close to the body and the skin free from 
undue roughness caused by scurf. 

189. Head— Short, Broad. The head of a hog that 
will fatten readily is very similar in its relative portions 
and parts to that of a steer, it should be comparatively 
short and broad. The snout should be of medium length 
with the face fine in features. 



JUDGING FAT HOGS 14? 

190. Eyes — Clear, Prominent. The eyes should be 
wide apart and large without any appearance of being 
watery. Folds of fat in creases about the eyes are com- 
mon, but are none the less objectionable. 

191. Ears — Small, Fine in Texture. The ear should 
be small in size and pointed. The way the ear is carried 
depends largely on the parentage of the hog, being erect 
in the Berkshire, half drooping in the Poland China and 
wholly pendant in the instance of most of the large white 
hogs. Large and coarse ears are generally associated 
with heavy and coarse bone and hide and consequently 
they are not desirable. 

192. Jowl — Firm, Broad, Neat. The jowl should be 
smooth, firm, broad and neat. A jowl that is flabby 
owing to the abnormal accumulation of fat in this region 
is very objectional, and the same may be said of the 
opposite condition which produces a very small jowl that 
is sharp at the edges. This region should not be so full 
as to be pendant and loose. 

193. Neck — Short; Narrow Nape. The neck in its 
upper part nearest the head should spring sharply up- 
ward and the ears should be comparatively fine or nar- 
row at the nape, and swell quickly to the breactth of the 
shoulders. It should be short and thick and deep as well, 
merging in this region into the brisket without any shrink- 
age. From the cheeks the neck should swell smoothly 
into the shoulder vein and pass from the shoulder with- 
out any noticeable depression. 

194. Shoulder — Full Vein, Level Top. Just forward 
of the shoulder where the neck swells most is the region 
known as the shoulder vein. Fullness in this part is 
desirable for it generally results in a smoothly covered 
and wide shoulder. On top, the shoulder should be level, 
being well packed with flesh, and in addition it should be 



148 JUDGING SWINE 

broad and deep. To fill out the form desired there should 
be some development of the brisket, though as a rule 
there is very little of this in the fat hog. 

195. Front Legs — Short, Straight; Pasterns Strong. 

The front legs should be short, straight, strong and taper- 
ing. The pastern should be strong and the feet com- 
paratively short and of medium size. What are known 
as "bucked knees" or pasterns are sometimes observable 
in hogs that bend over in these parts. Long, slim pasterns 
are very undesirable, for hogs having them readily break 
down when carrying much flesh. The fat hog should 
stand firm and high on the toes without any evidence of 
weakness of the pasterns. Viewed from in front the leg 
should be straight. A rather common defect here is 
crooked knees which come too close together, but the 
reverse defect is very rare among hogs. 

196. Chest— Low, Wide. The floor of the chest should 
be as low as possible, for it is the depth and width of this 
part that adds to the girth. With width between the fore- 
legs there is usually width above on the shoulder, though 
this is not always true. The girth should be large, for it 
is undesirable to have any shrinkage just behind the 
foreleg at the fore flank. 

197. Sides — Deep, Fleshed Evenly. The sides may be 
deep and yet supported with a round rib. Usually depth 
of side is associated with flatness of rib, but there are 
many decided exceptions to this to be found among fat 
hogs. When the rib springs from the back, well arched, 
and continues to follow the circumference of a circle 
it gives the hog the appearance of not only being leggy, 
but also lacking in depth of body. The rib, however, 
not only should be well sprung, but it should also be long, 
giving roundness and smoothness of body with more 
depth than appearance would indicate. The sides should 




Reprinted from Illinois Bulletin 147. 

A. English Cuts: 

a. Long-cut ham. 

B. Long side or middle. 

B. Side of carcass of a fat hog showing the common method of cutting 

in the Chicago market. 

1. Short-cut bam. Value, as fresh meat, per pound $.17% 

2. Loin. Value, as fresh meat, per pound 14 14 

3. Belly. Value, as fresh meat, per pound 16 

4. Picnic Butt. Value, as fresh meat, per pound 12 

5. Boston Butt. Value, as fresh meat, per pound 12 

6. Jowl. Value, as fresh meat, per pound 08 

7. Hock. Value, as fresh meat, per pound 09 ^ 

8. Back Fat. Value, as fresh meat, per pound 10 

9. Clear Plate. Value, as fresh meat, per pound 10 



148a 




Mule Foot Boar, Grand Champion of the Breed at New Tork and Ohio 
State Fairs, 1912. Owned by Jno. H. Dunlap, Williamsport, Ohio, Presi- 
dent American Mule Foot Record Association. 



DESCRIPTION OF MULE-FOOT SWINE. 

The Mule-Foot is the newest improved breed of swine now 
common in the United States. It takes its name from the 
character of the hoof, which, instead of being cloven, is solid, 
somewhat similar to that of a mule. There is no clear record 
of the origin of this characteristic but hogs possessing it have 
been known in Kentucky for some time. During the past ten 
years breeders' in Kentucky and Ohio have effected a very 
great improvement until now its conformation and fattening 
qualities are similar to those of older lard breeds. In emerg- 
ing from the unimproved type it has retained much of the 
vigor and vitality ordinarily, though not necessarily to some 
extent lacking in highly improved stock. Immunity from 
cholera has been claimed for this breed but its friends now 
base its claims to recognition most upon size, growthiness and 
strong vitality. 

See scale cf points page 159. 



lisi> 



JUDGIXG FAT IIOGC 149 

be thickly and evenly fleshed. It is not uncommon to 
notice creases just behind the shoulders and at different 
points between the shoulders and the hips. This is an 
indication of uneven fattening with a poor quality of 
flesh and is consequently objectionable. From the shoul- 
der to the ham in the fat hog there should be that evenness 
of line which would permit the laying of a straight edge 
along the sides from one of these points to the other and 
no deviation from the edge should be noticed at any 
point. Usually the development of the shoulders or the 
hams is as much greater as to leave a marked depression 
behind the shoulder and forward of the ham. 

198. Back— Straight, Broad, Evenly Covered With 
Flesh. Looking at the back from the side the top line 
should be straight, though if it rises gradually from the 
neck to the center of the back and there slopes very grad- 
ually to the tail, it usually carries more flesh and is con- 
sidered a stronger and better back. There certainly 
should be no depression from shoulder to tail in the back 
of the hog that is in fat condition. Viewing the back 
from above it should appear broad and the two lines that 
bound it on each side should be carried straight from the 
upper sides of the shoulder to the hips. In addition, the 
back should be evenly and thickly fleshed. Any tendency 
towards what is called a fish back, in which the center 
rises very sharply, is undesirable. 

199. Loin— Wide, Thick. The width of the loin 
should be such as to sustain the width of the back. In 
addition to being wide it must be straight and thickly 
fleshed to fill out the lines properly. Another part of the 
body that should receive some consideration is the belly. 
The underline should run parallel with the top line ; that 
is, the belly should be equally as straight as the back. 
The most common defect is a marked drooping in this 



150 JUDGING SWINE 

region. The fore flank and the hind flank should be 
nearly on the same level, though this is seldom so, unless 
the hog is far advanced in fattening. A full and pendant 
hind flank is an indication of fatness. 

200. Hips— Smoothly Covered With Flesh. The hips 
should be wide apart, completely covered with flesh and 
low. Where they are placed high, it is seldom that they 
are smoothly covered with flesh. In an evenly fleshed 
hog, the location of the hips is not apparent to the eye, 
so smoothly are they covered. 

201. Rump — Long, Smooth. The width of the hips 
should be carried back over this part. From the hip to 
the end of the body there should be as much length as 
may be secured. It is not possible to find a hog that is 
exactly level over this part, as they invariably droop 
somewhat towards the tail, but some nevertheless closely 
approach exact levelness in this region. 

202. Hams — Wide, Deep, Plump. Looking at the ham 
from the side, it should be wide from the stifle to the end 
of the body and it should also be plump and full right 
down to the hock. Viewed from behind, width from be- 
tween the legs to the outside of the ham, is very desirable. 
Perhaps the most difference in this part will be found in 
the degree to which the ham continues plump and full 
towards the hock. This part of the thigh should not be 
bare, but heavy with flesh. 

203. Hind Legs — Properly Set, Strong. The most 
common defect of the hind leg is a cramped condition of 
the hock. Though this is most usually found in hogs 
with light bone, yet it is common among hogs that other- 
wise appear strong in the limbs. It is noticeable that 
many hogs are higher behind than in front, showing the 
line running from the hind quarter to the head, to be very 
slanting. This is generally caused by the undue length 



JUDGING FAT HOGS 151 

of the hind legs. The legs should be short, strong and 
placed wide apart and when the hog moves the hind and 
the front legs should pass forward in a straight line. An 
in and out movement of the legs is not uncommon and it 
accounts for much of the awkwardness observable in the 
gait of fat hogs. 



SCALE OF POINTS FOR FAT HOGS — BARROW. -g 

v « 

GENERAL APPEARANCE: || 

Weight, score according to age 6 

Form, deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical, compact, 

standing squarely on legs 10 

Quality, hair silky; skin fine; bone fine; flesh smooth, 

mellow, and free from lumps or wrinkles 10 

Condition, deep, even covering of flesh especially in 

regions of valuable cuts 10 

HEAD AND NECK: 

Snout, medium length, not coarse 1 

Eyes, full, mild, bright 1 

Face, short, cheeks full 1 

Ears, fine, medium size, soft 1 

Jowl, strong, neat, broad 1 

Neck, thick, medium length 1 

FORE QUARTERS: 

Shoulder, broad, deep, full, compact on top 6 

Breast, advanced, wide 2 

Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; pasterns up- 
right; feet medium size 2 

BODY: 

Chest, deep, broad, large girth 2 

Sides, deep lengthy, full; ribs close and well sprung 6 

Back, broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed 10 

Loin, wide, thick, straight 10 

Belly, straight, even 2 

HIND QUARTERS: 

Hips, wide apart, smooth 2 

Rump, long, wide, evenly fleshed, straight 2 

Ham, heavily fleshed, plump, full, deep, wide 10 

Thighs, fleshed close to hocks 2 

Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; pasterns up- 
right; feet medium size 2 

Total 100 



152 JUDGING SWINE 



II. JUDGING BACON HOGS. 



Owing to the demand that has originated in the mar- 
kets for lean meats, the bacon type of hog has been 
evolved. The consumption of bacon has extended greatly 
and this has made a strong demand on the large mar- 
kets for the type of hog which produces this. To obtain 
a clear conception of the type required it is essential to 
remember that flesh is the leading characteristic de- 
manded and with this there are certain peculiar cuts 
which are quite distinct from those taken from the fat 
hog. 

204. Condition — Even and Thick Fleshed, The condi- 
tion of the bacon hog is a feature of paramount impor- 
tance, for it must be smooth over all parts with a thick 
covering of flesh. It is very necessary to understand that 
a thin hog is not in any sense a bacon hog. In the bacon 
hog it is desirable to have about one inch of fat with an 
abundance of lean flesh in the carcass. It is flesh, muscle 
or lean meat that is desirable and not in any sense a thin 
carcass. 

205. Form — Smooth, Long, Level, Deep. An important 
point among the desirable characteristics of the bacon 
hog is that of form, because this must be peculiar, as 
there are unusual cuts to be made from the carcass. The 
side should be as long as possible with great depth and 
levelness from shoulder to hip. The shoulder should not 
bulge out and the hams should not be pendant and plump 
as in the case of the lard hog. If a straight edge is laid 
along the side of the typical bacon hog it should touch 
every point from the start of the shoulder to the end of 
the hind quarter. Width is not sought for, but length 
and depth are cardinal points. The form should show a 
striking trimness in every region, due to an even covering 
of smooth flesh without any soft or flabby parts and a 




Photo from Ontario Farmers' Institute Report. 
Photograph showing packers' model of a bacon hog. The extreme 
length levelness and smoothness are the particular featuras of this type. 




Photo from Ontario Farmers' Institute Report. 
Photograph illustrating a pig too thin for the bacon market, but of 
desirable type in other essentials. 



152a 



^^p^' 




""^pisspr' 















Duroc Boar, Big Wonder. Owned and shown by O. P. Stevens, Ripley, la. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE DUROC-JERSEY SWINE. 

Z1T THE National Swine Breeders Convention, held in 1872, the Jersey 
«J" swine of New Jersey and the Durocs of New York were classified in the 
families of red swine with similar characteristics ; the Durocs it was then 
stated being finer in bone and carcass than the other reds. Previous to that 
time the Jersey reds had been bred in New Jersey state for over fifty years. 
The most popular color for this breed is a deep cherry red without any 
markings. The type most approved is that of a very compact hog exceed- 
ingly smooth in all parts and very close to the ground. The head is fine, 
the ear light and pendent, neck short and thick, the shoulder full yet 
smooth with the body, the back slightly arching, wide and strong. The hips 
deep and the hind quarter very plump and full with meat yet somewhat 
short, the legs are very short and straight allowing the frame to approach 
very close to the ground. The type is that of a very early maturing hog 
that will dress a high percentage of valuable cuts. See Official scale of 
points, page 172. 



152b 



JUDGING BACON HOGS 153 

well coupled form without undue coarseness. This trim- 
ness should be observable in the smoothness by which the 
shoulder and the quarter join the side, and it is also 
brought out very effectively by the thick trim belly which 
is characteristic of the bacon type. 

206. Weight. In reference to the weight that is de- 
sirable, the packers uniformly prefer a hog weighing from 
170 to 200 pounds live weight. This preference exists in 
the markets of the world and most decidedly in that of 
Great Britain where the production of this hog has 
reached its highest development. It seems that a hog of 
this weight in proper condition offers the most satisfac- 
tory cuts, both in weight and quality. 

207. Shoulders — Smooth, Compact. It will not be 
necessary to dwell on the minor points desired in the 
bacon type, but merely to discuss the salient features. 
Among these the shoulders demand attention, for they 
are much different in the ideal bacon hog than they are 
in the typical fat hog. The shoulder in the bacon type 
is not heavy, but completely free from roughness and 
characterized by compactness. It should fit closely to the 
body and not show any more width than the back and 
hind quarter, thereby adding to the trimness of form 
which is eminently desired in hogs of this type. The flesh 
should extend well down on the leg, indicating muscular 
development with a long shoulder cut. 

208. Sides — Long, Smooth, Level. The side is a very 
characteristic point in the bacon type, as it should possess 
as much length as possible with smoothness and levelness 
from the beginning of the shoulder to the end of the hind 
quarter. The choicest bacon comes from this region and 
on this account there should be as much as possible of 
the dressed weight in this region. The upper part of the 
side should carry a straight line from the shoulder to the 



154 JUDGING SWINE 

hip and the lower side should show almost as full a line 
running from the elbow to the stifle. The belly should be 
thicker with flesh than is usual in the case of the fat hog. 
In addition this part should be trim in form and thick 
without any flabbiness or shrinkage at either the fore or 
hind flank. The hind quarter of the bacon type is 
markedly different from that of the fat hog, because the 
extreme development of the latter is not considered an 
advantage in the bacon type. In the bacon hog the hips 
should be smooth and proportionately wide to the rest of 
the body. The hind quarter should be long, even and 
straight and slightly rounded towards the tail. A pe- 
culiar feature in the hog of this type is the gammon, 
which is a cut very similar to the ham. This should be 
firm, rounded, tapering and fleshed deep and low towards 
the hocks. Plumpness or fullness in this part is not con- 
sidered an advantage ; while length with smooth develop- 
ment of muscle is a prime requisite. 




Champion Poland China Sow. Beauty 2nd. 

Rich Hill, Mo. 



Owned by W. J. Baker, 



DESCRIPTION OB 1 THE POLAND-CHINA SWINE. 

THIS AMERICAN breed of swine originated in the Miami Valley of the 
Ohio during the years intervening between 1825 to 1840. It had for 
its ancestry a large coarse hog that was broken in color, being mostly white 
and black. The improvement of the last 40 years has resulted in producing 
an exceedingly symmetrical hog with early maturing qualities which has 
been added to further by disposition very favorable to quick fattening. The 
modern type shows unusual fullness which makes the width of the body 
remarkable though giving the appearance of undue shortness. With it all 
there is a quality of hair, bone and skin which contributes in a great degree 
to the percentage of meat from the carcass. The color is black with a few 
white markings, these consisting preferably of a splash on the face, four 
white feet and white on tip of the tail. The coat of hair should be thick, 
fine and free from swirls or spots around which the hair seems to twist. The 
head is small, slightly dished and runs to a fine snout. The ear starts 
strong and straight from the head but breaks and drops about one-third its 
length. The shoulder is well covered on top, the girth full, ribs well 
sprung, deep ; hind quarter very full with deep ham. The desirability of 
plumpness in all parts should not lead to undue shortness of body nor lack 
of length in the hind quarters. Straightness in the latter is also desirable 
as frequently the drop from the hip to the tail is quite marked. The legs 
should be straight and strong and the pasterns set so as to make the hog 
appear to be standing on the very tip of its toes. See official scale of 
points, page 161. 



154a 




Berkshire sow, Elphicic's Matchless, a prize winner owned by 
Mr. Edwin Buss, England. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE BERKSHIRE SWINE. 

DURING the last century this British breed of swine has been the subject 
of high breeding and careful selection. Writing in 1790, Lawrence de- 
scribes the Berkshire as being "long and crooked in snout, muzzle turning 
upwards, ears large and heavy and inclined to be pendulous, the body long 
and thick but not deep, legs short, bone large and great size." In "The 
Complete Grazier," written in 1805, the Berkshire of that time is described 
as follows : "Color reddish brown, with brown, or black spots, sides very 
broad, flat legs, ears large and pendulous over eyes, body thick, close and 
well made." The modern type of this breed reflects many changes from the 
old, as it represents a hog that is black in color with white on the face, 
feet and tip of tail. They are not such a large hog as those of the original stock 
as they are long in type, trim without undue roughness over the shoulder 
or prominence of hips. The face is short and dished, the ears short, pointed 
and erect, jaws full, back broad and straight, full over the shoulder, the loin 
thick and level and the hams especially full with short, strong and straight 
legs. Straightness in lines and trimness and smoothness over all parts are 
leading Berkshire characteristics and these should be strongly in evidence 
along the back and especially from the hock backward as the hind quarter 
should come out square to the tail and be full. As straightness and strength 
of legs are leading Berkshire features, it should be noted that the fore legs 
drop straight without any crookedness at the knee and the hind legs should 
not appear cramped above the hock. A thick coat of black hair lj'ing close 
to the body and without swirls should contribute much to the general ap- 
pearance of smoothness which is due in the main to an even covering of 
firm yet mellow flesh. See official scale of points, page 158. 



154b 



JUDGING BACON HOGS 155 



SCALE OF POINTS FOE BACON HOGS — BARROW. 



V <D 



V o 



GENERAL APPEARANCE: 

Weight, 170 to 2 00 lbs., largely the result of thick 

cover of firm flesh 6 

Form, long, level, smooth, deep 10 

Quality, hair fine; skin thin; bone tine; firm, even 
covering of flesh without any soft bunches of fat or 

wrinkles 10 

Condition, deep, uniform covering of flesh, especially 

in regions of valuable cuts 10 

HEAD AND NECK: 

Snout, fine 1 

Eyes, full, mild, bright 1 

Face, slim 1 

Ears, trim, medium size 1 

Jowl, light, trim 1 

Neck, medium length, light 1 

FORE QUARTERS: 

Shoulders, free from roughness, smooth, compact and 

same width as back and hind quarters 6 

Breast, moderately wide, full 2 

Legs, straight, short, strong, bone clean; pasterns up- 
right; feet medium size 2 

BODY: 

Chest, deep, full girth 4 

Back, medium and uniform in width, smooth 8 

Sides, long, smooth, level from beginning of shoulders 
to end of hind quarters. The side at all points 
should touch a straight edge running from fore to 

hind quarter 10 

Ribs, deep 2 

Belly, trim, firm, thick without any flabbiness or 

shrinkage at flank 10 

HIND QUARTERS: 

Hips, smooth, wide; proportionate to rest of body. ... 2 

Rump, long, even, straight, rounded toward tail 2 

Gammon, firm, rounded, tapering, fleshed deep and low 

towards hocks 8 

Legs, straight, short, strong; feet medium size; bone 
clean; pasterns upright 2 

Total 100 



156 JUDGING SWINE 

III. JUDGING SWINE FOR BREEDING PURPOSES. 

The judging of swine in the pure bred classes requires 
of the judge an intimate acquaintance with the scale of 
points adopted by the different associations of the various 
breeds. These scales of points have been arranged with 
much labor by the associations and consequently they 
should be closely followed. As they are published in full 
in another part of this work attention will be here given 
to a few peculiar points that should be sought in all 
breeds. 

209. — Boar. In addition to having the characteristics 
of the type of the breed, the boar should be strong in 
those traits that are peculiar to the sex. The head may 
be slightly inclined to coarseness, the neck full and arched 
somewhat, with the shoulder heavy. The fore quarters 
are usually slightly heavier than the hind quarters and 
this distinction grows greater with age as the shields de- 
velop. Strength of frame without coarseness in desirable 
and the body should be deep, long and low. Just behind 
the elbow there should be as much depth as possible, as 
this with a rugged appearance is indicative of a vigorous 
constitution. Short and strong limbs with straight pas- 
terns of a fine quality should carry the body easily and 
without awkwardness at all times. 

210. Sow. Omitting consideration of the breed type 
the sow should represent, the sex type is of first im- 
portance. There should not be the least appearance of 
coarseness — the head should be light, neck slim and neat 
and also inclined to sharpness between and back of the 
ears. In the sow it is expected that the hips and hind 
quarters should be slightly wider than the fore, though 
the width before and behind should be almost uniform. 
Length of body is specially desirable to give room for the 
growth of the litter. There should be twelve teats be- 



- ; 







T 



Improved Yorkshire sow, a first prize winner at Toronto Industrial 
Exhibition, owned by J. E. Brethour, Burford, Ontario. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE YORKSHIRE SWINE. 

HERE are three varieties of Yorkshires, namely ; the large, middle and 
the small, and as may be surmised these divisions are based wholly on 
size. The large Yorkshire is decended from the old English which were white 
in color with a few b'.ack spots and it was bred principally in Yorkshire. 
Both the white Chinese pigs, introduced at an early time in England, and 
the Neapolitan swine were used slightly upon the native stock. The middle 
Yorkshire originated by crossing the small and large varieties. The small 
Yorkshire is an offshoot of the large varieties containing a large percentage 
of Chinese blood. The improved large Yorkshire retains the hardness and 
prolificness of the old English hog and has improved in symmetry, flesh 
and early maturity through the Chinese cross. They are strong in bone, deep, 
and long in body and of medium quality throughout. They have thick bellies, 
well mixed meat and long sides, points that curers of bacon value highly. 
The middle or improved Yorkshire are as heavy as the large variety but 
are lighter in bone and head with a smaller quantity of offal. In type they 
are very similiar to the large Yorkshire, being long, level and deep in car- 
cass. The small Yorkshire are finer in quality, possess more symmetry and 
they are more compact in form. These features contribute to their early 
maturity but do not enable them to attain the heavy weights of the others. 
All the varieties are white in color. A few blue spots are permissible but these 
should not be covered with colored hair. See official scale of points, page 16S. 



156a 




Chester Wliite sow, Alma, sired by Coco 2223. The property of 
Joseph Cairns, Camlachie, Ontario, Canada. The litter of Alma when 
thiee months old tipped the scales at 100 pounds. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE CHESTER WHITE SWINE. 

»|*HIS BREED which originated in Chester county, Pennsylvania, about 
■ the beginning of the last century was the result of crossing the big 
Chinas with white pigs from Bedfordshire, England, which were of York- 
shire decent, thus giving these breeds much in common. The Chester ^Yllite 
is a large breed, strong though fine in bone, vigorous with very deep and 
lengthy bodies. They should be pure white in color and where black spots 
occur, these should not be covered with colored hair. The head has a fine 
snout with broad face slightly dished and the ears pendent. The jowl is 
light and the neck short and deep. Depth of chest is a very desirable char- 
acteristic and this should also be a feature of the body. The shoulder should 
fit snugly to the body and its width should be almost uniform with that of 
the body and hind quarter. Uniformity in these lines is desirable as the 
girth over the heart should be about equal to that around the flank. The 
hair should be fine and lie close to the body without any tendency to harsh- 
ness or extreme coarseness. See official scale of points, page 165. 



inob 



lOR BREEDING PURPOSES 3 p "* 

ginning well forward and none of them blind. Blind 
teats in young sows do not protrude as the normal teats 
do, and when the sow has farrowed they usually fail tc- 
yield any milk. 

In judging swine the best plan is to have them arranged 
in small yards so that they may be readily compared and 
driven enough tfi uoLc^mine ^hpther or not they are 
strong and active oi, their legs. 



158 JUDGING SWINE 

IV. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE. 

BERKSHIRE SWINE. 



STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN 

BERKSHIRE ASSOCIATION. 

m 

Color — Black, white feet, face and tip of tail, but skin and £ 
hair occasionally showing tinge of bronze or copper g 
color. An occasional splash of white not objection- u 
able; lack of either of white points admissable 3 

Face and, Snout — Face well dished and broad between 

eyes. Snout short and broad 7 

Eyes — Prominent, clean, clear, large, dark hazel or grey. . 2 

Ears — Medium size, setting well apart, carried fairly erect, 

inclining forward, especially with age 3 

Jowl — Full, firm, not flabby or hanging too low, running 

back well on neck 3 

Neck — Full, short and slightly arched; broad on top; well 

connected with shoulder 3 

Hair — Fine, straight, smooth, lying close to and covering 

the body well. Free from bristles 3 

Skin — Smooth and mellow 3 

Chest — Deep, full and wide, with good heart girth G 

Shoulder — Smooth and even on top and in line with side. . C 

Side — Deep, smooth, well let down; straight side and bot- 
tom lines C 

Back — Broad, full, strong, level or slightly arched; ribs 

well sprung 10 

Flank — Extending well back and low down on leg, mak- 
ing nearly a straight line with lower part of side. ... 5 

Ixrin — Full, wide and well covered with flesh 6 

Ham — Deep, wide, thick and firm, extending well up on 

back and holding thickness well down to hock 10 

Tail — Well up on line with back; neither too fine, short nor 

tapering 2 

Legs and Feet — Straight and strong, set wide apart, short 
in pastern, with hoofs nearly erect, capable of carry- 
ing great weight 10 

Size — Size all that is possible without loss of quality or 
symmetry, with good length. Weight in good condi- 
tion, boars at 12 months, 350 to 450 lbs.; at 24 
months, 500 to 700 lbs.; sows at 12 months, 350 to 
400 lbs.; at 24 months, 500 to 700 lbs 6 

Appearance and Character — Vigorous, attractive, of good 

disposition, firm and easy movement 6 

Total 100 

BERKSHIRE SWINE. 

The Berkshire Society of Great Britain has issued to the 
leading Agricultural Show Societies the following instruc- 
tions as guides to judges in making their awards: 

"We recommend that a perfectly black face, or a black foot, 
or black tail should disqualify a pig in the show yard. White 
or sandy spots on the top or sides of the animal, or a de- 
cidedly white ear should be disqualifications. Any descrip- 




r Sfi§: 

■'■■-■■ 





.JS 



Photo by Hills. 
Tamworth sow, Katy Bell, a very prolific sow that reared thirty- 
three living pigs in one year, while in the herd at the Iowa State 
College. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE TAMWORTH SWINE. 

THIS ENGLISH breed has been bred with care during the past sixty years 
without any infusions of foreign blood, consequently the representatives 
of this breed are very uniform as to color and type. The color should be a 
cherry red or a dark chestnut and very uniform in shade throughout with- 
out any black spots in skin or patches of hair other than the color indicated. 
The form should show the type that is desired for bacon production, this 
means a hog that is exceedingly light in offal with a long trim body and 
especially very smoothly covered with firm flesh indicating a desirable mix- 
ture of fat and flesh. The head should be slim, the snout fine and not un- 
duly long, the ear of appropriate size for the head with the neck sharp be- 
tween the ears and light, swelling easily to cover a deep shoulder smoothly. 
Depth of shoulder desirable but without any roughness. The shoulder should 
not bulge out beyond the body or the hips for this detracts from the general 
appearance of trimness and smoothness which is so very desirable. The back 
should be long and strong with a gradually rising arch over the shoulder to 
the loin and then a corresponding descending line from there to the end of the 
tail. Width of the back is not demanded but extreme smoothness and an even 
covering of firm flesh is absolutely essential. The ribs should drop as deep as 
possible making the body appear from the side as if it had abundance of 
depth. The loin is even in width with the shoulder and back well covered. 
The hind quarter lacks the width characteristic of the lard hog as this should 
not be any wider than the parts which precede it. Length of ham or gam- 
mon is a peculiar feature which should be looked for. A long ham, fleshed 
firmly towards the hock without folds of fat is eminently desired. The lead- 
ing features of the type throughout are length and depth with trimness and 
smoothness in all regions. See official scale of points, page 181. 



158a 




A Prize Winning Hampshire Boar. 

DESCRIPTION OF HAMPSHIRE. 

The Hampshire, formerly known as the Thin Rind, is one of the 
most recently formed breeds of swine. Its most striking- feature is 
the belt of white on the body otherwise black. This belt varies 
somewhat in position and width, but is essential to an animal's be- 
ing considered a true Hampshire. 

Hogs with white belts existed in some of the English counties 
years ago. Some of them were brought to America and have been 
called "listed" hogs. The breed has received most of its improve- 
ment during the past twenty years, largely through the work of 
breeders in Kentucky and Illinois. It possesses the characters of 
prolificacy, growthiness and vigor, sometimes lost as a result of 
injudicious selection under corn belt conditions. Its advocates for- 
merly claimed recognition for it as a bacon breed. This claim is 
now seldom made. While the Hampshire has more length than 
some types of other American breeds, it does not closely resemble 
the breeds bred especially for bacon instead of lard. The breed is 
very popular with packers, partly because of the light hide from 
which it took its former name. 

See scale of points page 170. 



158b 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 159 

tion of coloring, staining or clipping should also be a disquali- 
fication. White on the ear or under the throat or on the under- 
line of the body, should be considered objectionable. Either 
too much or too little white in the place of the recognized 
markings should be an objection, also to be noted in the com- 
petition." 



MULE^FOOT SWINE. 



OFFICIAL SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL 
MULE-FOOT HOG RECORD ASSOCIATION. 

Score. 

Head and Face 4 

Eyes 2 

Ears 2 

Neck 2 

Jowl 2 

Shoulders 6 

Chest 12 

Back and Loin 15 

Sides and Ribs 8 

Belly and Flank 6 

Ham and Rump 10 

Feet and Legs 10 

Tail : . 1 

Coat 2 

Color 2 

Size 5 

Action and Style 4 

Condition 4 

Disposition 3 

Total 100 

DIS QUALIFICATION S . 

Color — More white than black. 

Form — Slit or creased hoof; broken down feet; any radi- 
cal deformity. 

Condition — Any diseased condition; barrenness. 
Size — Not two-thirds standard weight. 
Pedigree — Not eligible to record. 

DETAILED DESCRIPTION. 

1. Head and Face — Head medium length. Face broad be- 
tween the eyes, nearly straight, cheeks full, surface even and 
regular. 

Objections — Head large, coarse, crooked or much dished. 

2. Eyes — Bright and lively, free from wrinkles or fat sur- 
roundings. 

Objections — Small, deep or obscure, or vision impaired by 
fat or other causes. 

3. Ears — Medium length, thin tipped, slightly inclined out- 
ward and forward; knuck small and well set to the head. 



;s60 JUDGING SWINE 

Objections — large, coarse, thick, .large or long knuck, 
•irooping or not under good control of the animal. 

4. Neck — Short, well set to the shoulders, tapering from 
•:houlder to head. 

Objections — Long, thick or bulky. 

5. Jowl — Full, neat and firm, and tapering from neck to 
Joint. 

Objections — Thin or flabby. 

6. Chest — Large, deep and roomy; full girth, extending 
down even with line of belly. 

Objections — Narrow at top or bottom, small girth, cramped 
or tucked up. 

7. Back and Loin — Slightly arched; good breadth, with 
uniform thickness from shoulder to ham; full at loin. 

Objections — Narrow, creased or drooped behind shoulders; 
surface ridgy or uneven. 

8. Sides and Ribs — Sides full, smooth form, carrying even- 
ly from shoulders to hams; ribs strong, well sprung at top 
and bottom. 

Objections — Sides thin, flat, flabby or creased; ribs not well 
sprung. 

9. Belly and Flank — Straight and full, devoid of coarse- 
ness; flank full and running nearly on line with side. 

Objections — Belly swagging or flabby, coarse; flank thin or 
tucked up. 

10. Hams and Rump — Hams full, long and deep; rump 
slightly rounded from loin to root of tail; buttock full, neat, 
firm. 

Objections — Hams narrow, cut too high in the crotch; 
rump too steep or too narrow, peaked at root of tail; but- 
tock flabby. 

11. Legs and Feet — Legs medium length, set well apart 
and squarely under body, wide above knee and hock, rounded 
and well muscled below, tapering, medium bone, pasterns 
short and nearly upright; foot solid, short, smooth, enabling 
the animal to carry its weight with ease. 

Objections — Legs too long or too short, slim, crooked or 
coarse; foot long, slim, weak or turned up. 

12. Tail — Medium length, straight or slightly curled. 
Objections — Coarse, long, clumsy, swinging like a pendu- 
lum. 

13. Coat — Pine, straight, smooth. 

Objections — Bristles or swirls; too coarse or too curly. 

14. Color — Black; white points admissable. 

Objections — Too much white, too many and too large white 
spots on body. 

15. Size — Large for condition; boar two years old should 
weigh 500 pounds, sow, same age, 450; eighteen months boar, 
375, sow, same age, 350; twelve months boar or sow, 300; 
six months boar or sow 175 pounds. 




Bei-KShire Sows. Owned by Iowana Farms, Davenport, Iowa. 




Champion Yorkshire Boar, Dandy Stuff. Owned by T. J. Manley, 

Guthrie, Iowa. 



160a 




A Prize Winning Duroc Barrow. Bred and shown by Thomas, Johnson 
and Sons, Columbus, Ohio. 











1 § t 




Berkshire sow, Highclere Countess IX, of Hood Farm, and her 
litter of nine pigs at three weeks old, by Wantage King of Hood 
Farm. First prize winner at numerous fairs in 189S. Two of the 
pigs are under the others, the white brush of one showing between the 
second and third from the left end, and the other in the same position 
from the other end. Owned by Hood Farm, Lowell, Massachusetts. 



160b 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 161 

16. Action and Style — Active, vigorous, graceful; style at- 
tractive. 

Objections — Dull, sluggish and clumsy. 

17. Condition — Healthy; skin free from defect; fresh, 
smooth, firm and evenly laid on. 

Objections — Unhealthy; skin scurfy, scaly or mangy; hair 
harsh, not growthy. 

18. Disposition — Docile, quiet and easily handled. 
Objections — Cross, restless, nervous, sluggish or without 

ambition. 



POLAND^CHINA SWINE. 



SCALE OF POINTS PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION 
OF EXPERT JUDGES OF SWINE. 

Head and Face 4 

Eyes . 2 

Ears 2 

Neck 2 

Jowl 2 

Shoulders 6 

Chest 12 

Back and Loin 15 

Sides and Ribs 8 

Belly and Flank 6 

Hani and Rump 10 

Feet and Legs 10 

Tail 1 

Coat 2 

Color 2 

Size 5 

Action and Style 4 

Condition 4 

Disposition 3 

Total 100 

DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Form — Upright ears; small, cramped chest, crease back of 
shoulders and over the back so as to cause a depression in 
back easily noticed; deformed or badly crooked legs; feet 
broken down, so that the animal walks on pastern joints. 

Size — China build, or not two-thirds large enough for age. 

Condition — Excessive fatness; barrenness; deformed; seri- 
ously diseased; total blindness, caused by defective eyes, or 
by reason of fat or loose and wrinkled skin over the eyes. 

Score — Less than sixty points. 

Pedigree — Not eligible to record. 

DETAILED DESCRIPTION. 

Head and Face — Head short and wide; cheeks full; jaws 
broad; forehead high and wide; face short; smooth; wide be- 



162 JUDGING SWINE 

tween the eyes; tapering from eyes to point of nose and slight- 
ly dished; surface even and regular. 

Objections — Head long; narrow; coarse; forehead low and 
narrow or contracted; lower jaw extending beyond upper; 
face long, straight and narrow, between the eyes; nose coarse, 
thick or crooked, ridgy or dished as much as a Berkshire. 

Eyes — Large, prominent; bright; lively, clear and free 
from wrinkled or fat surroundings. 

Objections — Small, dull, blood-shot, deep set or obscure, 
vision impaired by wrinkles, fat or other cause. 

Ears — Small; thin; soft; silky; attached to the head by a 
short and small knuckle; tips pointing forward and slightly 
outward, and the forward half drooping gracefully; fully 
under control of animal; both of same size, position and 
shape. 

Objections — Large; straight; stiff; coarse; thick; round; 
long or large knuckle, drooping close to face, swinging and 
flabby; difference in form, size or position. 

Neck — Wide; deep; short, and nicely arched at top, from 
poll of head to shoulder. 

Objections — Long; narrow; thin; flat on top; not extend 
ing down to breast bone; tucked up. 

Jowl — Pull; broad; deep; smooth and firm; carrying full- 
ness back near to point of shoulders, and below line of lower 
jaw, so that lower line will be as low as breast bone when 
head is carried up level. 

Objections — Light; flabby; thin; wedge shaped; deeply 
wrinkled; not drooping below line of lower jaw, and not car- 
rying fullness back to shoulder and brisket. 

Shoulders — Broad; deep and full; not extending above line 
of back, and being as wide on top as back; carrying size 
down to line of belly and having good lateral width. 

Objections — Narrow; not same depth as body; narrow on 
top or bottom or extending above line of back; less than body 
in breadth at top or bottom 'portions, or lacking in lateral 
width; shields on boars under eight months of age, or large, 
heavy shields on hogs under eighteen months of age. 

Chest — Large; wide; deep; roomy, indicating plenty of 
room for vital organs, and making a large girth just back of 
shoulders; the breast bone extending forward so as to show 
slightly in front of legs and extending in a straight line back 
to end of breast bone; showing width of not less than six 
inches between fore legs in a large, full grown hog. 

Objections — Flat; pinched; narrow at top or at either end 
of breast bone; breast bone crooked or not extending slightly 
in front of fore legs. 

Back and Loin — Broad; straight; or slightly arched; car- 
rying same width from shoulder to ham; surface even; 
smooth, free from lumps, creases or projections; not too long, 
but broad on top, indicating well sprung ribs; should not bs 
higher at hip than at shoulder and should till out at junc- 
tion, with side so that a straight edge placed along top of 
side will touch all the way from point of shoulder to point 
of ham; should be shorter than the lower belly line. 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOB SWINE 1C3 



Objections — Narrow; creased back of shoulders; swayed or 
hollow; dropping below a straight line; humped or wrinkled; 
too long, or sunfish shaped; loin high, narrow, depressed or 
humped up; surface lumpy, creased, ridgy or uneven; width 
at side not as much as shoulder and ham. 

Sides and Ribs — Sides full; smooth; firm and deep; carry- 
ing size down to belly and evenly from ham to shoulder; ribs 
long, strong, well sprung at top and bottom. 

Objections — Fiat; thin; flabby; pinched; not as full at 
bottom as top; drawn in at shoulders so as to produce a 
crease or pinched and tucked up and in as it approaches the 
ham; lumpy or uneven surface; ribs flat or too short. 

Belly and Flank — Wide, straight and full and drooping as 
low at flank as bottom of chest; back of fore leg making a 
straight line from fore legs to hind legs; flank full and out 
even with surrounding portions of body; the belly at that 
point drooping down on a line with lower line of chest; the 
loose skin connecting ham and belly being on a line even 
with bottom of side. 

Objections — Belly narrow; pinched; sagging or flabby. 
Flank tucked up or drawn in. 

Hams and Rump — Hams broad; full, long and wide. They 
should be as wide at point of the hip as the swell of the ham. 
Buttocks large and full; should project beyond and come 
down upon and full between the hocks. The lower front 
part of the ham should be full and stifle well covered with 
flesh and a gradual rounding toward the hock. Rump should 
have a rounding slope from loin to root of tail; same width 
as back and filling out full on each side of, and above the 
tail. 

Objections — Ham narrow; short; thin; not projecting be- 
yond and coming down to hock; cut up too high in crotch or 
twist; lacking in fullness at top or bottom; lacking in width 
from stifle straight back; loAver fore part thin and flat; 
straight from root of tail to hock; buttocks light, thin or 
flabby. Rump flat, narrow and peaked at root of tail; too 
cteep. 

Legs and Feet — Legs medium length; straight, set well 
apart and squarely under body; tapering; well muscled and 
wide above knee and hock; below hock and knee round and 
tapering, capable of sustaining weight of animal in full flesh 
without breaking down; bone firm and of fine texture; pas- 
terns short and nearly upright. Feet firm; short, tough and 
free from defects. 

Objections — Legs long; slim; coarse; crooked; muscles 
email above hock and knee; bone large; coarse, as large at 
foot as above knee; pasterns long, slim, crooked or weak; 
the hocks turned in or out of straight line; legs too close to- 
gether; hoofs long, slim and weak; toes spreading or crooked 
or unable to bear up weight of animal without breaking down. 

Tail — Well set on; email, smooth, tapering and carried in 
a curl. 

Objections — Coarse; long; crooked or hanging straight 
down like a rope. 



164 JUDGING SWINE 

Coat — Fine; straight; smooth; laying close to and cover- 
ing the body well; not clipped; evenly distributed over body. 

Objections — Bristles; hair coarse; harsh; thin; wavy or 
curly; swirls; standing up; ends of hair split and brown, not 
evenly distributed over all of the body except belly. Clipped 
coats should be cut 1.5 points. 

Color — Black with white in face or on lower jaw; white 
on feet and tip of tail, and a few small, clear white spots on 
body not objectionable. 

Objections — Solid black, more than one-fourth white; 
sandy hairs or spots; a grizzled or speckled appearance. 

Sizes — Large for age and condition; boars two years old and 
over, if in good flesh, should weigh not less than 500 pounds. 
Sows same age and condition not less than 450 pounds. Boars 
eighteen months old, in good condition, not less than 400 
pounds; sows, 350 pounds. Boars twelve months, not less 
than 300i pounds; sows, 300 pounds. Boar and sow six 
months, not less than 150 pounds. Other ages in proportion. 

Objections — Overgrown; coarse; gangling, or hard to fat- 
ten at any age. 

Action and Style — Action vigorous; easy; quick and grace- 
ful. Style attractive; high carriage; and in males testicles 
should be of same size; carriage, readily seen and yet not too 
large. 

Objections — Slow; dull; clumsy; awkward; difficulty in get- 
ting up when down; low carriage; wabbling walk. In males 
testicles not easily seen, not of same size or carriage, too large 
or only one showing. 

Condition — Healthy; skin clear of scurf, scales, or sores; 
soft and mellow to the touch; flesh fine, evenly laid on and 
free from lumps or wrinkles. Hair soft and lying close to 
body; good feeding qualities. 

Objections — Unhealthy; skin scaly, wrinkly, scabby or 
harsh, flabbiness or lumpy flesh; too much fat for breeding. 
Hair harsh, dry and standing up from body; poor feeder; 
deafness, partial or total. 

Disposition — Quiet, gentle and easily handled. 

Objections — Cross, restless, vicious or wild. 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 165 

CHESTER WHITE SWINE. 



SCALE OF POINTS AS ADOPTED BY THE CHESTER WHITE RECORD 

ASSOCIATION, DEC. 1, 1913. ALSO ADOPTED BY THE 

0. I. C. SWINE BREEDERS ASSOCIATION, 

DEC. 3, 1913. 

SCALE OF POINTS. 

Head and Face 4 

Eyes 2 

Ears 2 

Neck 2 

Jowl 2 

Shoulders 6 

Chest 12 

Back and Loin 14 

Sides and Ribs 9 

Belly and Flank 4 

Ham and Rump 10 

Feet and Legs 9 

Tail 1 

Coat 3 

Color 2 

Size 8 

Action and Style 3 

Condition 2 

Disposition 2 

Symmetry 3 

Total 100 

DETAILED DESCRIPTION. 

Head and Face — Head short and wide; cheeks neat; jaws 
broad and strong; forehead medium, high and wide; face 
face short and smooth; nose neat, tapering and slightly dished. 

Objections — Head long, narrow or coarse; cheeks too full; 
forehead low and narrow; jaws contracted and weak; face 
long, narrow and straight; nose coarse, clumsy or dished like 
a Berkshire. 

Eyes — Bright, large, clear and free from wrinkles or over- 
hanging fat. 

Objections — Small, deep set, surrounded by wrinkles or fat. 

Ears — Drooping at tip to give graceful appearance; thin; 
soft; pointing outward and forward; well proportioned to size 
of body. 

Objections — Too large and coarse; thick, lopping; lying too 
near the face; stiff, erect, or too small. Not under control. 

Neck — Wide; deep; short and nicely arched; neatly tapering 
from shoulder. 

Objections — Narrow; thin; long; flat on top; tucked up; 
not extending down to breast bone. 

Jowl — Smooth; neat; firm; full; carrying fullness well back 
to shoulders and brisket when head is carried up level. 



166 JUDGING SWINE 



Objections — Light; rough and deeply wrinkled; too large 
and flabby; not carrying fullness back to shoulders and 
brisket. 

Shoulders — Broad; deep and full; extending in line with 
the side and carrying size down to line of belly. 

Objections — Deficient in width or depth; extending above 
line of back; thick beyond line of sides and hams; shields 
on boars too coarse and prominent. 

Chest — Heartgirth — Large, wide, deep and full; even under 
line to the shoulder and sides with no creases; giving plenty 
of room for the heart and other organs, making a large girth 
indicating much vitality. Brisket smooth, even and broad; 
wide between the legs and extending well forward showing in 
front. 

Objections — Pinched appearance at the top or bottom, or 
tucked in back of forelegs; showing too narrow between the 
legs, not depth enough back of the shoulder. Brisket uneven, 
narrow, not prominent. 

Back and Loin — Broad; straight or slightly arched; uni- 
form width; free from lumps or rolls; same height and width 
at shoulder as at ham. 

Objections — Narrow; swayed; humped; creasing back of 
shoulders; sun-fish shaped; uneven width; lumps or rolls. 

Sides — Full; smooth; deep; carrying size down to line of 
belly; even with line of ham and shoulder. 

Objections — Flat; thin; flabby; uneven surface; compressed 
at bottom; shrunken at shoulder and ham. 

Ribs — Long; well sprung at top and bottom; giving animal 
a square form. 

Objections — Too short; flat. 

Belly — Same width as back; full; straight; drooping as 
low at flank as at bottom of chest; line of lower edge running 
parallel with sides. 

Objections — Narrow; pinched; sagging or flabby. 

Flank — Full and even with body; equalling heartgirth. 

Objections — Thin, tucked up or drawn in; less than heart- 
girth or length of body from top of head to root of tail. 

Ham or Rump — Broad; full; long; wide and deep; admit- 
ting of no swells; buttock full, neat and clean; stifle well cov- 
ered with flesh, nicely tapering toward the hock; rump slight- 
ly rounding from loin to root of tail, same width as back, 
making an even line with sides. 

Objections — Narrow; short; not filled out to stifle; too much 
cut up in crotch or twist; not coming down to hock; buttocks 
flabby; rump flat, narrow, too long, too sharp or peaked at 
root of tail. 

Legs — Medium length; strong and straight; set well apart 
and well under body; bone of good size; firm; well muscled; 
wide above knee and hock, round and tapering below knee and 
hock, enabling the animal to carry its weight with ease; pas- 
terns short and nearly upright. 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 167 

Objections — Too short or too long; weak; crooked; too close 
together; muscles weak; bone too large and coarse, without 
taper; pasterns long, crooked or slim. 

Feet — Short; firm; tough; animal standing well up on toes. 

Objections — Hoofs long, slim, weak; toes spreading, 
crooked or turned up. 

Tail — Small; smooth; nicely tapering; root slightly covered 
with flesh; carried in a curl. 

Objections — Coarse; too long; clumsy; straight. 

Coat — Fine; either straight or wavy with preference for 
straight; evenly distributed and covering the body well. 

Objections — Bristles; swirls; hair coarse, thin, standing up, 
not evenly distributed over all the body except the belly. 

Color — White. Red or black spots in hair disqualify, but 
blue spots in hide (commonly known as freckles) while ob- 
jectionable and should be discouraged, do not argue impur- 
ity of blood. 

Objections — Color any other than white. 

Size — Large for age and condition. Boar two years and 
over, if in good flesh, should weigh not less than 500 pounds; 
sow same age and condition, not less than 4 50 pounds. Boars 
eighteen months old, in good flesh, should weigh not less 
than 400 pounds; sows, 350. Boars twelve months old, not 
less than 3 50 pounds; sows, 300. Boars and sows six months 
old net less than 150 pounds each, and other ages in propor- 
tion. 

Objections — Overgrown, coarse, uncouth, hard to fatten. 

Action — Easy and graceful; high carriage; active; gentle 
and easily handled. In males testicles should be readily seen, 
and of same size and carriage. 

Objections — Sluggish; awkward; low carriage; wild, 
vicious. In males, testicles not distinctly visible, or not of 
came size and carriage. 

Condition — Healthy and mellow touch, fat evenly laid on. 

Objections — Harsh to touch, flabbiness, fat in lumps on 
back or sides. 

Disposition — Quiet and gentle. 

Objections — Cross, restless, quarrelsome. 

Symmetry or Adaption of Points — The adaption of all the 
points, size and style combined to make the desired type or 
model. 

DISQUALIFICATIONS FOR REGISTRY. 

1. Sows scoring less than 60 points. 

2. Boars scoring less than 70 points. 

3. Red or black hair in coat. 

4. Barren or stunted animals. 



16S JUDGING SWINE 



YORKSHIRE SWINE. 



SCALE OF POINTS OF THE LARGE IMPROVED YORKSHIRE 

ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN YORKSHIRE CLUB. m 

+-> 

General Outline — Long and deep in proportion to width, s 
but not massive; slightly arched in the back, sym- § 
metrical and smooth, with body firmly supported by 

well-placed legs of medium length 5 

Outline of Head — Moderate in length and size, with lower 
jaw well sprung, and some dish toward snout, in- 
creasing with advancing maturity 4 

Forehead and Poll — Wide 1 

Eye — Medium size, clear and bright 1 

Jowl — Medium, not carried too far back, toward neck, and 

not flabby 1 

Snout — Turning upward with a slight curve, increasing 

with age 1 

Ear — Medium in size, standing well out from head, nearly 

erect, but inclining slightly forward . 1 

Neck — Of medium length, fair width and depth, rising 
gradually from poll to withers, muscular, but not 

gross, evenly connecting head with body 3 

Outline of Body — Long, deep, and of medium breadth, 
equally wide at shoulder, side and hams; top line 

slightly arched, underline straight 7 

Back — Moderately broad, even in width from end to end; 

strong in loin, short ribs of good length 10 

Shoulder — Large, but not massive; not open above 6 

Arm and Thigh — Broad and of medium length and de- 
velopment 2 

Brisket- — Wide and on a level with underline 3 

Side — Long, deep, straight and even from shoulder to hip 8 

Ribs — Well arched and deep 5 

Heart Girth and Flank Girth — Good and about equal . . . 8 
Hind Quarters — Long to correspond with shoulder and 

side, deep with moderate and gradual droop to tail. . 5 
Ham — Large, well let down on thigh and twist and rear 

outline somewhat rounded 10 

Twist — Well down and meaty 1 

Tail — Medium, not much inclined to curl 1 

Legs — Medium in length, strong, not coarse, but standing 

straight and firm 5 

Hair — Abundant, long, of medium fineness without any 

bristles 4 

Skin — Smooth and white, without scales, but dark spots in 

skin do not disqualify 2 

Color — White on every part 1 

Movement — Active, but not restless 5 



Total 100 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 169 



THE YORKSHIRE TYPE. 

The above scale of points gives some idea of the relative im- 
portance of the points to consider in selecting Yorkshires, but 
it is well to keep a good idea of the general conformation in 
mind. 

The type of any animal is determined, of course, by the 
use to which the animal is to be put, either alive or dead as 
the case may be. Since the ultimate object of the Yorkshire 
is the production of fancy ham and bacon, and principally 
bacon, we must select the kind of form that will produce a 
carcass comprising the greatest amount of those products with 
the least amount of waste. So the most important point to 
consider in selecting a Yorkshire is the length and depth of 
side. Thickness from side to side is not essential. If the 
hog has the proper depth of side the inside cavity will bo 
large enough for the vital organs even if we secure extreme 
narrowness of form. If we are to have a narrow long body 
it is very important to have the top line slightly arched for 
the back of such a hog is subjected to greater strain than one 
with the short body. 

Then briefly we want as a whole, a long, deep bodied hog, 
with a good back, good deep hams but rather light shoulders; 
and other things being equal we want the body of the least 
thickness from side to side. 

Too many breeders, who perhaps have been used to the 
lard type, make the mistake of selecting Yorkshires with as 
great width as possible. Avoid this by all means for the con- 
ditions of feed and climate prevailing in the United States 
tend toward thickening the body without any aid by selection. 



170 JUDGING SWINE 

HAMPSHIRE SWINE 



HAMPSHIRE STANDARD OF PERFECTION. 

The following is the Standard of Perfection of Hampshire 
hogs, revised and adopted by the American Hampshire Swine 
Record Association at their late meeting: 

DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Color — Spotted, more than two-thirds white or solid black. 

Form — Any radical deformity, ears very large or drooping 
over eyes, crooked or weak legs or broken-down feet. 

Condition — Seriously impaired or diseased, excessive gross- 
ness, barrenness in animals over two years of age, chuffy or 
squabby fat. 

Size — Not two-thirds standard weight. 

Pedigree — Not eligible to record. 

DETAILED DESCRIPTION. ™ 

- 1. Head and Face — Head medium length, rather nar- § 
row, cheeks not full; face nearly straight and medium Q 
width between the eyes, surface even and regular ... 4 
Objections — Head large, coarse and ridgy, nose 
crooked or much dished. 

2. Eyes — Bright and lively, free from wrinkles or fat 

isurroundings 2 

Objections — Small, deep or obscure, or vision im- 
paired by fat or other cause. 

3. Ears — Medium length, thin, slightly inclined outward 

and forward 2 

Objections — Large, coarse, thick, large or long 

knuck, drooping or not under good control of the 

animal. 

4. Neck — Short, well set to the shoulders, tapering from 

shoulder to head 3 

Objections — Long, thick or bulky. 

5. Jowl — Light and tapering from neck to point, neat 

and firm 2 

Objections — Large, broad, deep or flabby. 

6. Shoulders — Deep, medium width and fullness, well in 

line with back 6 

Objections — Narrow on top or bottom, thick beyond 
line with sides and hams. 

7. Chest — Large, deep and roomy; full girth, extending 

down even with the line of belly 12 

Objections — Narrow at top or bottom; small girth, 
cramped or tucked up. 

8. Back and Loin — Back straight or slightly arched; me- 

dium breadth, with nearly uniform thickness from 
shoulders to hams and full at loins — sometimes high- 
er at hips than at shoulders 15 

Objections — Narrow, creased or drooped behind 
shoulders; surface ridgy or uneven. 

9. Sides and Ribs — Sides smooth, full, firm, carry size 

evenly from shoulders to hams; ribs strong, well 

sprung at top and bottom 8 

Objections — Sides thin, flat, flabby or creased or ribs 
not well sprung. 



OFFICIAL STANDAEDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 171 



10. Belly and Flank — Straight and full, devoid of gross- 

ness; flank full and running nearly on line with sides 6 
Objections — Belly sagging or flabby; flank thin or 
tucked up. 

11. Hams and Rump — Hams of medium width, long and 

deep; rump slightly rounded from loin to root of 
tail; buttock full, neat and tirm, devoid of flabbiness 

or excessive fat 10 

Objections — Ham narrow, cut too high in crotch, but- 
tock flabby, rump too fat, too narrow or too steep, 
or peaked at root of tail. 

12. .Legs and Feet — Legs medium length, set well apart 

and squarely under body, wide above knee and hock, 
and rounded and well muscled below, tapering, bone 
medium, pasterns short and nearly upright, toes 
short and firm, enabling the animal to carry its 

weight with ease 10 

Objections — Legs too long, slim, crooked, coarse or 
short; weak muscles above hock and knee bone 
large and coarse and legs without taper, pasterns 
too long to correspond with length of leg, too 
crooked or too slender; feet long, islim and weak; 
toes spreading, too long, crooked or turned up. 

13. Tail — Medium length, slightly curled 1 

Objections — Coarse, long, clumsy, swinging like a 
pendulum. 

14. Coat — Fine, straight, smooth 2 

Objections — Bristles or swirls, coarse or curly. 

15. Color — Black, with exception of white belt encircling 

body, including fore legs 2 

Objections — White running high on hind legs, or ex- 
tending more than one-fourth length of body or 
solid black. 

16. Size — Large for conditions; boar two years and over, 

450; sow, same age. 400; eighteen months boar, 350; 
sow, 32 5; twelve months boar or sow, 300; six 
months, both sexes, 140 5 

17. Action and Style — Active, vigorous, quick and grace- 

ful; style, attractive and spirited 4 

Objections — Dull, sluggish and clumsy. 

18. Conditions — Healthy, skin free from all defects, flesh 

evenly laid on and smooth and firm, not patchy, and 

devoid of all excess of grossness 4 

Objections — Skin scurfy, scaly, mangy, or otherwise 

unhealthy, hair harsh, dwarfed or cramped, not 

growthy. 

19. Disposition — Docile, quiet and easily handled 3 

Objections — Cross, restless, vicious or with no ambi- 
tion. 



172 JUDGING SWINE 

DUROCJERSEY SWINE. 

SCALE OF POINTS AMERICAN DUROC-JERSEY RECORD. 

Similar to the description prepared by the National | 

Duroc Jersey Record Association. £ 

Head and Face 4 

Eyes 2 

Ears 2 

Neck 2 

Jowl 2 

Shoulders 6 

Chest 12 

Back and Loin 15 

Sides and Ribs 8 

Belly and Flank 6 

Hams and Rumps 10 

Legs and Feet 10 

Tail 1 

Coat 2 

Color 2 

Size 5 

Action and Style 4 

Condition 4 

Disposition 3 

Total 100 

DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Form. — Ears standing erect; small cramped chest, and 
crease back <of shoulders and over back so as to cause a depres- 
sion in the back easily noticed; seriously deformed legs, or 
badly broken down feet. 

Size. — Very small, or not two-thirds large enough as given 
by the standard. 

Score. — Less than fifty points. 

Pedigree. — Not eligible to record. 

DETAILED DESCRIPTION. 

Head and Face. — Head small in proportion to size of body; 
wide between eyes; face nicely dished (about half way be- 
tween a Poland-China and a Berkshire) and tapering well 
down to the nose; surface smooth and even. 

Objections. — Large and coarse; narrow between the eyes; 
face straight; crooked nose, or too much dis'hed. 

Eyes. — Lively, bright and prominent. 

Objections. — Dull, weak and obscure. 

Ears. — Medium; moderately thin; pointing forward, down- 
ward and slightly outward, carrying a slight curve, attached to 
head very neatly. 

Objections. — Very large; nearly round; too thick; swinging 
or flabby; not of same size; different position and not under 
control of animal. 

Neck. — Short, thick and very deep and slightly arching. 

Objections. — Long, shallow and thin. 



OFFICIAL, STANDAEDS OF EXCELLENCE FOE JUDGING SWINE 173 

Jowl. — Broad, full and neat; carrying fullness back to 
point of shoulders and on a line with breast bone. 

Objections. — Too large, loose and flabby; small thin and 
wedging. 

Shoulders. — Moderately broad; very deep and full; carrying 
thickness well down and not extending above line of back. 

Objections. — Small; thin; shallow; extending above line of 
back. Boars under one year old heavily shielded. 

Chest. — Large; very deep; tilled full behind shoulders; 
breast bone extending well forward so as to be readily seen. 

Objections. — Flat; shallow, or not extending well down be- 
tween fore legs. 

Back and Loin. — Back medium in breadth; straight or slight- 
ly arching; carrying even width from shoulder to ham; sur- 
face even and smooth. 

Objections. — Narrow; crease behind shoulders; swayed or 
hump backed. 

Sides and Ribs. — Sides very deep; medium in length; level 
between shoulders and hams and carrying out full down to 
line of belly. Ribs long, strong and sprung in proportion to 
width of shoulders and hams. 

Objections. — Flabby, creased, shallow and not carrying 
proper width from top to bottom. 

Belly and Flank. — Straight and full and carrying well out 
to line of sides. Flank well down to lower line of sides. 

Objections. — Narrow; tucked up or drawn in; sagging or 
flabby. 

Hams and Rump. — Broad, full and well let down to the 
hock; buttock full and coming nearly down and filling full be- 
tween hocks. Rump should have a round slope, from loin to 
root of tail; same width as back and well filled out around 
tail. 

Objections. — Ham narrow; short; thin; not projecting well 
down to hock; cut up too high in crotch. Rump narrow; flat 
or peaked at root of tail; too steep. 

Legs and Feet. — Medium size and length; straight; nicely 
tapered; wide apart and well set under the body; pasterns 
short and strong. Feet short, firm and tough. 

Objections. — Legs extremely long, or very short; slim; 
coarse; crooked; legs as large below knee and hock as above; 
set too close together; hocks turned in or out of straight line. 
Feet, hoofs long; slim and weak; toes spreading or crooked. 

Tail. — Medium; large at base and nicely tapering and rather 
bushy at end. 

Objections. — Extremely heavy; too long and ropy. 
Coat. — Moderately thick and fine; straight, smooth and 
covering the body well. 

Objections. — Too many bristles; hair coarse, harsh and 

rough; wavy or curly; swirls, or not evenly laid over the body. 

Color. — Cherry red without other admixtures. 

Objections. — Very dark red or shading brown; very pale or 

light red; black spots over the body; black flecks on belly and 

legs not desired but admissible. 

Size. — Large for age and condition. Boars two years old and 
over should weigh 600 pounds; sow same age and condition, 



174 JUDGING SWINE 

500 pounds. Boar eighteen months, 47 5 pounds; sow, 400 
pounds. Boar twelve months, 350 pounds; sow, 3 00 pounds. 
Boar and sow pigs six months, 150 pounds. The figures are 
for animals in a fair show condition. 

Objections.- — Rough ana coarse and lacking in feeding 
qualities. 

Action and Style. — Action vigorous and animated. Style 
free and easy. 

Objections. — Dull or stupid; awkward and wabbling. In 
boars testicles not easily seen nor of same size or carriage; 
too large or only one showing. 

Condition. — Healthy; skin free from scurf, scales, sores, 
and mange; flesh evenly laid over the entire body and free 
from any lumps. 

Objections. — Unhealthy; scurfy; scaly; sores; mange; too 
fat for breeding purposes; hair harsh and standing up; poor 
feeders. 

Disposition. — Very quiet and gentle; easily handled or 
driven. 

Objections. — Wild, vicious or stubborn. 

VICTORIA SWINE, 



u 



SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY VICTORIA SWINE BREEDERS 

ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN VICTORIA SWINE RECORD, 

VOL.' I, 1887. 

The description that follows is similar to that adopted 
by the National Association of Expert Judges. 

Color — White, with occasional dark spots in the skin 2 

Head — Small, broad and face medium dished 3 

Ears — Fine, pointing forward 2 

Jowl — Medium size and neat 1 

Neck — Short, full and well arched 3 

Shoulders — Broad and deep 7 

Girth Around Heart 6 

Back — Straight, broad and level 12 

Sides — Deep and full 6 

Ribs — Well sprung 7 

Loin — Broad and strong 12 

Flank — Well let down 2 

Ham — Broad, full and deep, without loose fat 12 

Tail — Medium fine and curled 2 

I»egs — Fine and straight 3 

Feet — Small 3 

Hair — Fine and silky, free from bristles 3 

Action — Easy and graceful 4 

Symmetry — Adaptation of the several parts to each other. 10 

Total 100 

Detailed description of Victoria swine as adopted by the Vic- 
toria Swine Breeders' Association at their annual meeting, No- 
vember, 1888, as an aid to judges at fairs in place of the score 
card. 

Color. — White, with occasional dark spot in the skin. 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR JUDGING SWINE 175 

Head and Face. — Head rather small and neat. Pace medium 
dished and smooth; wide between eyes; tapering from eyes to 
nose. 

Eyes — Medium size, prominent, bright; clear and lively in 
young, and quiet expression in aged animals. 

Neck. — Medium wide, deep, short, well arched and full at 
top. 

Jowl. — Medium full, nicely rounded, neat and free from 
loose, flabby fat. 

Shoulders. — Broad, deep and full, not higher than the line 
of back, and as wide on top as back. 

Chest. — Large, wide, deep and roomy, with large girth back 
of shoulders. 

Back and Loin. — Broad, straight or slightly arched, carrying 
same width from shoulders to ham; level and full at loin; 
sometimes higher at hip than at shoulder. 

Ribs and Sides. — Ribs well sprung at top; strong and firm; 
sides deep, full, smooth and firm; free from creases. 

Belly and Flank. — Wide; straight and full; as low or 
slightly lower at flank than at chest. Flank full and nearly 
even with sides. 

Hams and Rump. — Hams long; full and wide; nicely round- 
ed; trim and free from loose fat. Buttocks large and full; 
reaching well down toward hocks. Rump, slightly sloped 
from end of loin to root of tail. 

Legs and Feet. — Legs short; set well apart and firm; wide 
above knee and hock tapering below. Feet firm and standing 
well up on toes. 

Tail. — Small; fine and tapering; nicely curled. 

Coat. — Fine and silky; evenly covering the body. 

Size. — Boars two years old and over when in good condi- 
tion should weigh not less than 5 00 pounds; sow same 
age and condition, 45 pounds. Boars twelve months old 
not less than 300 pounds; sows in good flesh, 300 pounds. 
Pigs 5 to 6 months old, 140 to 160 pounds. 

Action. — Easy and graceful, but quiet. 

Condition. — Healthy; skin clean, and white or pink in color; 
free from scurf; flesh firm and evenly laid on. 

Disposition. — Quiet and gentle. 

DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Color.— Other than white or creamy white, with occasional 
dark spots in skin. 

Form. — Crooked jaws or deformed face; crooked or de- 
formed legs; large, coarse, drooping ears. 

Condition. — Excessive fatness; barrenness; deformity in 
any part of body. 

Pedigree. — Not eligible for record. 



176 JUDGING SWINE 

CHESHIRE SWINE, 



STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE. THE CHESHIRE HERD BOOK. 
VOL. I, 1889, 

Head. — Short to medium in length, short in proportion tc 
length of body; face somewhat dished and wide between the 
eyes; ears small, erect, in old animals often slightly pointing 
forward; neck, short; shoulders broad and full; hips broad, 
body long, broad and deep; hams, broad, nearly straight witfc 
back and running well down towards hock; legs small and 
slim, set well apart and supporting the body on the toes; 
tail, small and slim; hair fine, medium in thickness and quan- 
tity; color, white, a few blue spots in skin not to disqualify, 
but objectionable; when grown and well fattened should dress 
from 400 to 600 pounds. 

SCALE OF POINTS. 

Cheshires must be s'hown in fair breeding condition. « 

Animals too fleshy to meet this requirement must be | 

docked ten points. o 
Head. — Short to medium in length, short in proportion to 

length of body 8 

Face. — Somewhat dished and wide between the eyes 8 

Jowl. — Medium in fullness 3 

Ears. — Small, fine, erect; in old animals often pointing for- 
ward 5 

Neck. — Short and broad 3 

Shoulders. — Broad, full and deep 6 

Girth. — Size of body around heart 8 

Back. — Long, broad and straight nearly to root of tail. ... 10 

Side. — Deep and full, nearly straight on bottom line r i 

Flank. — Well back and low down, making flank girth nearly 

equal to heart girth 3 

Hams. — Broad, nearly straight with back and running well 

down towards hock 10 

Legs. — Small and slim, set well apart and supporting body 

on toes 10 

Tail. — Small, slim and tapering 3 

Hair. — Fine, medium in thickness and quality 3 

Color. — White, any other colored hair to disqualify 2 

Skin. — Thin and pliable; small blue spots objectionable, 

but allowable • • • • • \ 

Symmetry. — Animal well proportioned, handsome, stylish . . 8 

Total. . .-. 10 ° 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR JUDGING SWINE 177 

YORKSHIRE SWINE: LARGE WHITE, 

STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE PUBLISHED IN THE NATIONAL 
PIG BREEDERS ASSOCIATION HERD BOOK, NOTTING- 
HAM, ENG., VOL. XII, 1896. 

Color. — White, free from black hairs, and as far as possible 
from blue, spots on the skin. 

Head. — Moderately long, face slightly dished, snout broad, 
not too much turned up, jowl not too heavy, wide between 
ears. 

Ears. — Long, thin, slightly inclined forward, and fringed 
with fine hair. 

Neck. — Long, and proportionately full to the shoulders. 

Chest.- — Wide and deep. 

Shoulders. — Level across the top, not too wide, free from 
coarseness. 

Legs. — Straight and well set, level with the outside of the 
body, with fiat bone. 

Pasterns. — Short and springy. 

Feet. — Strong, even and wide. 

Back. — Long, level and wide from neck to rump. 

Loin. — Broad. 

Tail. — Set high, stout and long, but not coarse, with tassels 
of fine hair. 

Sides. — Deep. 

Ribs. — Well sprung. 

Belly. — Full, but not flabby, with straight underline. 

Flank. — Thick and well let down. 

Quarters. — Long and wide. 

Hamsv^-Broad, full and deep to hocks. 

Coat. — Long and moderately fine. 

Action. — Firm and free. 

Skin. — Not too thick, quite free from wrinkles. Large bred 
pigs do not fully develop their points until some months old, 
the pig at five months often proving at a year or fifteen 
months a much better animal than could be anticipated at 
the earlier age and vice versa; but size and quality are most 
important. 

Objections. — Black hairs, black spots, a curly coat, a coarse 
mane, short snout, in-bent knees, hollowness at back of shoul- 
ders. 

MIDDLE WHITE SWINE. 

STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL PIG 
BREEDERS ASSOCIATION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

Color. — White, free from black hairs and blue spots on the 
skin. 

Head. — Moderately short, face dished, snout broad and 
turned up, jowl full, wide between the ears. 

Ears. — Fairly large, carried erect and fringed with fine 
hair. 

Neck. — Medium length, proportionately full to the shoul- 
ders. 

Chest. — Wide and deep. 



ITS JUDGING SWINE 

Shoulders. — Level across the top, moderately wide, free 
from coarseness. 

Leg. — Straight and well set, level with outside of the body 
with fine bone. 

Pasterns. — Short and springy. 

Feet. — Strong, even and wide. 

Back. — Long, level and wide from rump. 

Loin. — Broad. 

Tail. — Set high, moderate length, but not coarse, with tassel 
of fine hair. 

Sides. — Deep. 

Ribs. — Well sprung. 

Belly.— Full, but not flabby and straight underline. 

Flank. — Thick and well let down. 

Quarters. — Long and wide. 

Hams. — Broad, full and deep to hocks. 

Coat. — Long, fine and silky. 

Action. — Firm and free. 

Skin. — Fine and quite free from wrinkles. 

Objections. — Black hairs, black or blue spots, a coarse mane, 
in-bent knees, hollowness of shoulders, wrinkled skin. 



SMALL WHITE SWINE. 

STANDAED OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL PIG 
BREEDEES ASSOCIATION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

Color. — Pure white. 

Head. — Very short and dished, snout broad and turned up, 
jowl very full, broad between the ears. 

Ears. — Small, short and erect. 

Neck. — Short and thick. 

Chest. — Full and broad. 

Shoulders. — Full and wide. 

Legs — Short, set well outside the body, fine bone. 

Pasterns. — Short and springy. 

Feet. — Small. 

Back. — Broad, level and straight. 

Loin. — Wide. 

Tail. — High set, small and fine, with tassel of fine hair. 

Girth. — As deep as possible consistent with length. 

Sides. — Deep. 

Bibs. — Well sprung. 

Belly. — Deep and near ground. 

Flank. — Thick and well let down. 

Quarters. — Wide and full. 

Hams. — Deep, wide, full, and well rounded. 

Coat. — Fine and silky. 

Action. — Free and firm. 

Skin. — Fine, quite free from wrinkles. The general appear- 
ance of animals, small, thick and compact when compared 
with other breeds. 

Objections. — Black hairs, black or blue spots, coarse hair, 
in-bent knees, hollowness at back of shoulder, wrinkled skin. 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR JUDGING SWINE 179 

SMALL YORKSHIRE SWINE 



SCALE OF POINTS — AMERICAN SMALL YORKSHIRE SWINE 
RECORD, VOLUME II, 1890. 

Smaller the better 2 

Nose, shorter the better 5 

Dish, greater the better 3 

Head 15 ( Width between ears, greater, the better 3 

Ears, small, thin, erect, more so the 
better (may be pricked forward, not 

lopped) 2 

Top line, straighter the better, from 

shoulder to tail 5 

Belly line, the more level the better. . 5 
Girth, in excess of length, more the bet- 

Trur ter, if not more than ten per cent. . . 5 

( Depth, greater the better 5 

Width, greater and evener the better, 

from shoulder to ham 5 

Loin, broader the better 5 

Flank, deeper and fuller the better. . . 5 

C Length, longer the better 10 

Hams 25 «! Breadth, broader the better 10 

L Thickness, greater the better 5 

f Length, longer the better 2 

Shoulders ... 5^ Breadth, broader the better 3 

I Thickness 



Legs 



o 



( Shorter the better 3 

\ Straighter the better 2 



/ Smooth, flexible, fine; more so the bet- 

l ter 5 

J Must not be too thin, nor ridgy 

Skin 5 / and coarse, nor show discolored 

) spots from old sores, not pale and 

/ ashy but healthy in color and free 

1 from eruption. 

Hair ] Evener, finer and thicker the better . 5 

General appear- ( Symmetry and evidence of vigorous 
ance 5 1 health 5 

Total 100 

DISCOUNTS AND DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Pedigree, lack of registration or ineligibility to be regis- 
tered disqualifies 100 

Sterility, inability to produce offspring disqualifies 100 

Deformity, any structural deformity or lack disqualifies. .100 



180 JUDGING SWINE 

Disease, any evidence of, or tendency to disease disqualifies. 100 
Disease, scars of sores, discolored spots, eruptions, eczema, 

etc 5 to 25 

Colored hair, disqualifies 100 

Colored spots, dark spots in skin 5 to 25 

Size, inordinate size, with coarseness of bone or form. 10 to 50 

Size, diminutive size .5 to 25 

Disposition, savage or fierce nature 5 to 10 



SUFFOLK SWINE. 



SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN SUFFOLK "£ 

3 

ASSOCIATION. £ 

Color. — White 2 

Head. — Small, broad and face dished 3 

Ears. — Fine, erect, slightly drooping with age 2 

Jowl. — Pull and neat 1 

Neck. — Short, full and slightly arched 3 

Shoulders. — Broad and deep 7 

Girth Around Heart 6 

Back. — Straight, broad, level 12 

Sides. — Deep and full 6 

Ribs. — Well sprung . 7 

Loin. — Broad and strong 12 

Flank. — Well let down 2 

Ham. — Broad, full, deep 12 

Tail. — Medium, fine and curled 2 

Legs. — Fine, straight and tapering 3 

Feet. — Small 3 

Hair. — Fine and silky, free from bristles 3 

Action. — Easy and graceful 4 

Symmetry. — Adaptation of the several parts to each other 10 

Total , 100 



OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 181 



TAMWORTH SWINE. 



STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL PIG BREEDERS 

ASSOCIATION OF GREAT BRITAIN AND THE AMERICAN 

TAMWORTH SWINE RECORD ASSOCIATION. 

Color — Golden red hair on a flesh colored skin, free from 
black. 

Head — Fairly long, snout moderately long and quite 
straight, face slightly dished, wide between ears. 

Ears — Rather large, with fine fringe, carried rigid and in- 
clined slightly forward. 

Neck — Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar. 

Chest — Wide and deep. 

Shoulders — Fine, slanting and well set. 

Legs — Strong and shapely, with plenty of bone and set well 
outside body. 

Pasterns — Strong and sloping. 

Feet — Strong, and of fair size. 

Back — Long and straight. 

Loin — Strong and broad. 

Tail — Set on high and well tasselled. 

Sides — Long and deep. 

Ribs — Well sprung and extending well up to flank. 

Belly — Deep, with straight under line. 

Flank — Full and well let down. 

Quarters — Long, wide, and straight from hip to tail. 

Hams — Broad and full, well let down to hocks. 

Coat — Abundant, long, straight and fine. 

Action — Firm and free. 

Objections — Black hair, very light or ginger hair, curly coat, 
coarse mane, black spots on skin, slouch or drooping ears, 
short or turned up snout, heavy shoulders, wrinkled skin, in- 
bent knees, hollowness at back of shoulders. 



The following is the Tamworth Scale of Points adopted by 
the English breeders: 

Formation and setting on of fore legs 10 

Formation and setting on of hind legs 10 

Length and general conformation 10 

Head, ears, jowl and snout 10 

Breadth of neck 5 

Breadth and depth of shoulders 10 

Width of loin, depth of sides, springing of ribs 15 

Depth and breadth of hams 10 

Straightness of back ....,., 5 

Hair and quality of skin 5 

Color 5 

Fineness of bone . 5 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 



This book has been developed to its present form under in- 
fluences that have been very favorable to it and the author 
feels that these should be fittingly acknowledged. From its 
inception, some ten years ago, these influences have been so 
encouraging that it becomes necessary to give tangible evidence 
of them, and consequently the work had to be published with- 
out any thought of filling the traditional "long-felt want" 
which is so frequently the source of authorship. Previous to 
attending the Ontario Agricultural College the writer had a 
very limited knowledge of any phase of live stock work but a 
deep love and active interest in animal life, centered chiefly 
on horses, made the instruction from such teachers as Prof. 
Wm. Brown, Dr. F. C. Grenside and Prof. J. W. Robertson, a 
genuine pleasure. After graduation, three years of editorial 
management of the Canadian Live Stock Journal offered un- 
usual opportunities for analyzing the ideals of the best Cana- 
dian breeders, to whom unlimited appreciation is hereby ten- 
dered for a foundation which could hardly have been laid 
without more than usual co-operation from them. With the 
acceptance of the Chair of Animal Husbandry in the University 
of Wisconsin, a wider field was entered upon for deeper study 
and investigation. Stock judging was made a leading feature 
of the course, and with the development of ideas a new system 
of instruction was evolved. The writer is vastly indebted to 
Mr. R. B. Ogilvie, formerly proprietor of Blairgowrie Stock 
Farm, for not only directly assisting the development of this 
department at the University, but also for the results from 
frequent visits and conferences at Blairgowrie, through which 
a much stronger grasp of the essentials of horse judging was 
obtained. For many valuable observations on the qualities of 
draft horses the writer finds himself also greatly in the debt 



1S6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

o2 Mr. Alexander Galbraith. The influence of Hon. W. A. 
Jones, now Commissioner of Indian Affairs, was clearly felt on 
the development of this department of the University, for 
through him as chairman of the Farm Committee of the Board 
of Regents, the equipment for this work was materially up- 
lifted with corresponding encouragement. Mr. George Mc- 
Kerrow liberally assisted the writer in his work and much 
advancement is due to him and others, including Messrs. 
George Harding and Son, the late Mr. M. W. Dunham, Ex- 
Governor Hoard, H. C. Taylor, John Gosling and M. J. Hoven, 
all of whom in more than one way gave material impetus to 
the movement. 

It was at this time that the writer come under the inspiring 
influence of the late Mr. William Watson. It was a source of 
intense pleasure to see this experienced fitter and judge sub- 
ject any of his loving friends, chiefly cattle and sheep, to his 
considerate inspection. Equally fair minded, another friend, 
William Lysaght, had this rare faculty of candid criticism 
even of bis own, and to both of these men the writer owes 
more than he is able to acknowledge. After coming to Iowa, 
enlarged opportunities were entered upon for the pursuit of 
these studies. Prof. C. F. Curitss and Hon. James Wilson, 
present Secretary of Agriculture, had prepared the way with 
an equipment in live stock and other facilities of exceptional 
merit for the teaching of this subject. Continued association 
with the former has vastly deepened and widened the writer's 
interest and knowledge of this subject; for such must be the 
outcome of contact with a broad and fair minded judge of 
wide experience in American live stock show rings. One of the 
most effective sources of encouragement to the development 
of this line of teaching has been the support given the move- 
ment by the commission firm of Messrs. Clay, Robinson & 
Company, of the Union Stock yards, Chicago. By liberally 
donating prizes for the study of this subject in our colleges, 
this firm brought the attention of the practical man to it, as 
the latter realized that when a large firm stopped in its work 
to do this there must be something of genuine merit in the 



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 187 

movement. With such interest from outside sources and such 
direct associations is it any wonder that the subject should 
grow until it became a necessity to publish a book about it? 
Other influences have been drawn on in studying this sub- 
ject further. In earlier days the writer happened on one of 
the first numbers of the Breeders Gazette, containing an illus- 
trated editorial on the points of horses. This emphasized the 
importance of the subject and at once started the note taking 
and the collection of photographs which seem essential features 
for a work like this. Since then the same source has been 
frequently drawn upon. The writer has also found it very 
desirable to keep in touch with the London Live Stock Journal, 
as well as many other publications along this line included in 
the American press. Among contemporary works, Capt. Hayes' 
"Points of the Horse," Goubaux and Barrier's "Exterior of 
the Horse," Underbill's "Driving for Pleasure" and many 
others have been consulted. To continue acknowledging all 
the sources of assistance to the writer, would require another 
volume but let it suffice to say — there are hundreds of Amer- 
ican, Canadian and British breeders to whom he vividly recog- 
nizes his debt but feels utterly unable to adequately acknowl- 
edge it. 



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